Lynda D. Rodwell

Resolving coastal conflicts using marine spatial planning

We applied marine spatial planning (MSP) to manage conflicts in a multi-use coastal area of Kenya. MSP involves several steps which were supported by using geographical information systems (GISs), multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and optimization. GIS was used in identifying overlapping coastal uses and mapping conflict hotspots. MCDA was used to incorporate the preferences of user groups and managers into a formal decision analysis procedure. Optimization was applied in generating optimal allocation alternatives to competing uses. Through this analysis three important objectives that build a foundation for future planning of Kenyas coastal waters were achieved: 1) engaging competing stakeholders; 2) illustrating how MSP can be adapted to aid decision-making in multi-use coastal regions; and 3) developing a draft coastal use allocation plan. The successful application of MSP to resolve conflicts in coastal regions depends on the level of stakeholder involvement, data availability and the existing knowledge base.

Financial Comparisons of Fishing Gear Used in Kenya's Coral Reef Lagoons

Abstract The cost of fishing and the income earned by fishers using small and large traps, gill nets, beach seines, hand lines, and spearguns were assessed in the multigear fishery of southern Kenya to establish a financial rationale for fishing gear use. Direct observations and key-informant interviews with fish leaders and boat captains were used to gather data on fish catch, cost of fishing gear, boats, and the price of fish. Among the fishing gear used, spearguns had the lowest monthly cost (USD 1 mo−1) while big traps had the highest (USD 13 mo−1). Income was highest among capital cost beach seine fishers (USD 183 mo−1) and lowest among noncapital cost beach seine fishers (USD 20 mo−1). There was a direct positive correlation between income earned and profitability of gear. Correlation of the financial measure for each gear to four categories of damage to fish and habitats showed that low cost fishing gear were associated with the highest environmental damage indicating a trade-off between cost of gear and environmental health.

Privately Managed Marine Reserves as a Mechanism for the Conservation of Coral Reef Ecosystems: A Case Study from Vietnam

Abstract Coral reef ecosystems have been declining at an alarming rate during recent decades, despite increasing numbers of marine protected areas (MPAs) encompassing coral reefs. However, many MPAs have not met reserve objectives, inhibiting effective protection. This study focuses on the potential effectiveness of a Hotel Managed Marine Reserve (HMMR) at enhancing reef fish stocks. Biannual visual fish census surveys were conducted at two marine reserves adjacent to Whale Island Resort, Vietnam, October 2005 to April 2007. The 6-year protected Whale Island Bay Reserve (11 ha) showed significantly higher fish densities, richness, average size, and number of fish >15 cm compared with two unprotected control sites. Fish stocks at a second newer reserve, Whale Island Bay Peninsula (5 ha), quickly increased after protection. This study has demonstrated the effectiveness of HMMRs, suggesting a global network of such privately managed reserves could play a part in the conservation of the worlds coastal resources, while alleviating financial pressure on governments.

Incorporating indirect ecosystem services into marine protected area planning and management

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are recognised as being the mechanism through which marine ecosystem services may be conserved to benefit human well-being. Planning and decision-making can be supported by the quantification and valuation of ecosystem services. To inform the development and management of MPAs a ‘service-orientated’ framework has been developed to use available data to spatially map and explore the pathways between ecosystem services, processes and the ecological functioning of benthic species for indirect ecosystem service provision within a case study area. The framework demonstrates that ecosystem service delivery is functionally interlinked and ecological function cannot be clearly mapped onto individual ecosystem services. The methodology developed here enables decision-makers to understand the links between benthic species, ecological function and indirect ecosystem services. There is currently no measure to quantify how much function is required to maintain human well-being. This lack of a measure, coupled with a large amount of uncertainty surrounding the links between ecosystem function and ecosystem service provision in marine systems, demonstrates that the inclusion of percentage targets for the conservation of broad-scale habitats in MPA planning and management should be considered within a precautionary approach to maintain the delivery of indirect ecosystem services.

A thematic cost-benefit analysis of a marine protected area.

The implementation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is ultimately a social endeavour to sustain or improve human well-being via the conservation of marine ecosystems. The degree to which ecological gains are realised can depend upon how economic, ecological and social costs (negative impacts) and benefits (positive impacts) are included in the designation and management process. Without the support of key stakeholder groups whose user rights have been affected by the creation of an MPA, human impacts cannot be reduced. This study analyses a three year dataset to understand the themes associated with the economic, environmental and social costs and benefits of an MPA in Lyme Bay, United Kingdom (UK) following its establishment in 2008. Methodologically, the paper presents an ecosystem based management framework for analysing costs and benefits. Two hundred and forty one individuals were interviewed via questionnaire between 2008 and 2010 to determine perceptions and the level of support towards the MPA. Results reveal that despite the contentious manner in which this MPA was established, support for the MPA is strong amongst the majority of stakeholder groups. The level of support and the reasons given for support vary between stakeholder groups. Overall, the stakeholders perceive the social, economic and environmental benefits of the MPA to outweigh the perceived costs. There have been clear social costs of the MPA policy and these have been borne by mobile and static gear fishermen and charter boat operators. Local support for this MPA bodes well for the development of a network of MPAs around the UK coast under the United Kingdom Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009. However, this initial optimism is at risk if stakeholder expectation is not managed and the management vacuum is not filled.

Investigation into the sustainability of organic aquaculture of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua).

Abstract Wild stocks of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) are low. With fisheries in decline, continued demand for cod has led to a fledgling aquaculture industry and current forecasts call for rapid growth. However, critics blame aquaculture of carnivorous species for further depleting fish stocks and for its wider effects on the marine environment. We examine the activities of Johnson Seafarms, a sea-cage organic cod farming facility in the Shetland Islands, to investigate whether “organic” cod farming can be environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable. Data were collected via public questionnaires and interviews with aquaculture experts. The results show that, before it closed in 2008, Johnson Seafarms was addressing the environmental concerns traditionally associated with aquaculture of carnivorous species and that economic viability is possible as a market exists for organically farmed cod at prices higher than for wild fish. We conclude that organic cod farming, as was practiced in the Shetland Islands, is sustainable on that scale. While the industry has room for measured expansion, overexpansion would increase pressure on natural systems, undermining environmental and, ultimately, social and economic sustainability. Producers and regulators should consider alternative techniques, including land-based or integrated aquaculture systems. Any development should be accompanied by further research regarding the industry’s sustainability.

Evaluating the success of a marine protected area: A systematic review approach

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), marine areas in which human activities are restricted, are implemented worldwide to protect the marine environment. However, with a large proportion of these MPAs being no more than paper parks, it is important to be able to evaluate MPA success, determined by improvements to biophysical, socio-economic and governance conditions. In this study a systematic literature review was conducted to determine the most frequently used indicators of MPA success. These were then applied to a case study to demonstrate how success can be evaluated. The fifteen most frequently used indicators included species abundance, level of stakeholder participation and the existence of a decision-making and management body. Using the indicator framework with a traffic light system, we demonstrate how an MPA can be evaluated in terms of how well it performs against the indicators using secondary data from the literature. The framework can be used flexibly. For example, where no MPA data currently exist, the framework can be populated by qualitative data provided by local stakeholder knowledge. This system provides a cost-effective and straightforward method for managers and decision-makers to determine the level of success of any MPA and identify areas of weakness. However, given the variety of motivations for MPA establishment, this success needs to be determined in the context of the original management objectives of the MPA with greater weighting being placed on those objectives where appropriate.