Lynley A. Wallis

Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago

The time of arrival of people in Australia is an unresolved question. It is relevant to debates about when modern humans first dispersed out of Africa and when their descendants incorporated genetic material from Neanderthals, Denisovans and possibly other hominins. Humans have also been implicated in the extinction of Australia’s megafauna. Here we report the results of new excavations conducted at Madjedbebe, a rock shelter in northern Australia. Artefacts in primary depositional context are concentrated in three dense bands, with the stratigraphic integrity of the deposit demonstrated by artefact refits and by optical dating and other analyses of the sediments. Human occupation began around 65,000 years ago, with a distinctive stone tool assemblage including grinding stones, ground ochres, reflective additives and ground-edge hatchet heads. This evidence sets a new minimum age for the arrival of humans in Australia, the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa, and the subsequent interactions of modern humans with Neanderthals and Denisovans.

An overview of leaf phytolith production patterns in selected northwest Australian flora

Phytolith occurrence in predominantly the leaves of 177 non-Poaceae plant species, representing 53 families, from northwest Australia were investigated with the aim of creating a comparative collection to assist interpretations of phytolith assemblages recovered from archaeological and geological contexts. Approximately 50% of the samples examined were found to be non-phytolith producers. The remaining samples produced variable quantities of phytoliths, ranging from minimal traces to abundant amounts. A range of phytolith morphologies was observed, including both distinctive and redundant forms. Comparison of the results from this study with those conducted in other geographical locations reveals a general continuity of patterns within families, thereby suggesting a high level of genetic control for phytolith production. However, differences between the results of this study with another major Australian study [Bowdery (1996) Unpubl. Ph.D. Thesis, Aust. Natl. Univ., Canberra, (1998) BAR Int. Monogr. Ser. 695, Hadrian, Oxford] seem to indicate that environmental factors must also be considered to play an important role in determining the nature of phytolith production. It is concluded that phytoliths constitute a valuable microfossil system for the reconstruction of palaeovegetation, palaeoclimate and plant–human interactions in the tropical region of northern Australia.

The archaeology, chronology and stratigraphy of Madjedbebe (Malakunanja II): A site in northern Australia with early occupation.

Published ages of >50 ka for occupation at Madjedbebe (Malakunanja II) in Australias north have kept the site prominent in discussions about the colonisation of Sahul. The site also contains one of the largest stone artefact assemblages in Sahul for this early period. However, the stone artefacts and other important archaeological components of the site have never been described in detail, leading to persistent doubts about its stratigraphic integrity. We report on our analysis of the stone artefacts and faunal and other materials recovered during the 1989 excavations, as well as the stratigraphy and depositional history recorded by the original excavators. We demonstrate that the technology and raw materials of the early assemblage are distinctive from those in the overlying layers. Silcrete and quartzite artefacts are common in the early assemblage, which also includes edge-ground axe fragments and ground haematite. The lower flaked stone assemblage is distinctive, comprising a mix of long convergent flakes, some radial flakes with faceted platforms, and many small thin silcrete flakes that we interpret as thinning flakes. Residue and use-wear analysis indicate occasional grinding of haematite and woodworking, as well as frequent abrading of platform edges on thinning flakes. We conclude that previous claims of extensive displacement of artefacts and post-depositional disturbance may have been overstated. The stone artefacts and stratigraphic details support previous claims for human occupation 50-60 ka and show that human occupation during this time differed from later periods. We discuss the implications of these new data for understanding the first human colonisation of Sahul.

Environmental history of northwest Australia based on phytolith analysis at Carpenter's Gap 1

Examination of a phytolith assemblage from the archaeological site of Carpenters Gap 1 provides an hitherto unrecognised source of vegetation history for the tropical savannah region of north western Australia. Two predominant mechanisms contributed to the formation of the phytolith assemblage: firstly, the introduction of phytoliths in plant materials brought in by humans, and, secondly, the introduction of phytoliths contained in faecal pellets deposited by animals. Separating the effects of both mechanisms enables local vegetation patterns, and, by inference, climatic conditions, to be reconstructed. The period ca. 40,000 years BP was probably wetter than today, allowing the southerly expansion of palms beyond their present day distribution. Grassland compositional changes occurred by ca. 33,000 years BP, probably resulting from a combination of lowered rainfall, decreased temperatures and possibly Aboriginal firing activities. A reduction in palm at a similar time, followed by its complete disappearance, in association with the loss of Ulmaceae prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) indicates a continued trend in decreasing water availability. An abundance of Cyperaceae, sponge spicules and diatoms during the LGM, when considered in conjunction with the other evidence, possibly represents altered human behaviour in response to increased aridity.

Northern Australian offshore island use during the Holocene: the archaeology of Vanderlin Island, Sir Edward Pellew group, Gulf of Carpentaria

Abstract This paper presents an overview of archaeological investigations in the Sir Edward Pellew Islands in the southwest Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Australia. It is argued that Vanderlin Island, like the majority of Australia’s offshore islands, attests to a lacuna in human habitation for several thousand years after the marine transgression and consequent insulation c.6700 years ago. With the imminent threat of inundation, people appear to have retreated to higher land, abandoning the peripheral exposed shelf areas; subsequent (re)colonisation of these relict shelf areas in their form as islands took place steadily from c.4200 BP, with increased intensity of occupation after 1300 BP. Possible links between the timing of island occupation, watercraft technology and the role of climate change are investigated, with more recent changes in the archaeological record of Vanderlin Island also examined in light of cultural contact with Macassans.

Indigenous and modern biomaterials derived from Triodia ('spinifex') grasslands in Australia.

Plant-derived fibres and resins can provide biomaterials with environmental, health and financial benefits. Australian arid zone grasses have not been explored as sources of modern biomaterials including building materials. Triodia grasslands are a dominant vegetation type in the arid and semiarid regions of Australia covering a third of the continent. Of the 69 identified Triodia species, 26 produce resin from specialised cells in the outer leaf epidermis. In Aboriginal culture, Triodia biomass and resin were valued for their usefulness in cladding shelters and as a hafting agent. Since European settlement, Triodia grasslands have been used for cattle grazing and burning is a common occurrence to improve pasture value and prevent large-scale fires. Although Triodia grasslands are relatively stable to fires, more frequent and large-scale fires impact on other fire sensitive woody and herbaceous species associated with Triodia and invasion of exotic weeds resulting in localised changes in vegetation structure and composition. The extent and change occurring in Triodia grasslands as a result of altered land-use practices, fire regimes, and changing climate warrant careful consideration of their future management. Localised harvesting of Triodia grasslands could have environmental benefits and provide much needed biomaterials for desert living. Research is underway to evaluate the material properties of Triodia biomass and resin in the context of Indigenous and western scientific knowledge. Here, we review uses of Triodia and highlight research needs if sustainable harvesting is to be considered.

Late Holocene Changes in Shellfishing Behaviors From the Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Australia

ABSTRACT Dramatic changes in shellfishing behaviors occur across northern Australia during the late Holocene, marked most conspicuously by the cessation of large shell mound construction in some areas, and the reorganization of shellfishing behaviors towards more intensive production in the last 1,000 years. Excavations reveal rapid and widespread changes within coastal sites, an increasing diversification in overall subsistence resources, and patterns of increase in site establishment and use. Some of these changes have been argued to be associated with increasing climate variability and a trend towards increasing aridity during the late Holocene, thought to have transformed coastal ecosystems and mollusc availability. However, when these hypotheses are tested at the local level, more nuanced patterns of human-environment interaction emerge, which call into question interpretations based on broad-scale climate records. We suggest that disjunctions in the timing of the cessation of shell mound construction noted between the west and east Gulf of Carpentaria may be related, at least in part, to the timing and intensity of external cultural contacts with Macassan seafarers, associated with reorganization of mobility and production strategies, rather than as yet undemonstrated environmental changes impacting on shellfish availability.

Gledswood Shelter 1: Initial Radiocarbon Dates from a Pleistocene Aged Rockshelter Site in Northwest Queensland

In 2002, a research programme was initiated in collaboration with the Woolgar Valley Aboriginal Corporation to investigate the long-term chronology and nature of regional occupation of the northwest savannah corridor, beyond local refugia. Subsequent surveys identified more than 100 sites among the sandstone escarpments in the foothills of the Gregory Ranges (Wallis et al. 2004). However, owing to the specific site formation processes operating locally, few of these have accumulated sedimentary sequences suited to addressing questions of long-term chronology. The recently excavated Gledswood Shelter 1 (hereafter GS1) is an exception to this generalisation and this paper presents the initial results of radiocarbon determinations from this site.

Locating places for repatriated burial: a case study from Ngarrindjeri ruwe, South Australia

In this ingenious co-operative case study, archaeologists and Indigenous peoples use geophysical survey to scan suitable places for the reburial of repatriated human remains. The process is also building a procedure for the low impact and respectful research of early Indigenous burial locations.

Trialing geophysical techniques in the identification of open Indigenous sites in Australia: A case study from inland northwest Queensland

The use of geophysical techniques as an aid to archaeological investigations has become common-place, however these methods have only occasionally been applied in Indigenous Australian archaeology. This is despite recognition (and recommendations) since the 1970s that such approaches have the potential to yield positive results in such contexts (e.g. Connah et al. 1976; Stanley 1983; Stanley and Green 1976). Australian archaeologists have perhaps been reluctant to embrace these techniques because of their perceived high cost (both of equipment and specialist staff) and the subtle nature of subsurface Indigenous sites as geophysical targets. Nevertheless, there have been a number of recent applications of these techniques in Australia, particularly in relation to burial and hearth sites. We report the results of a pilot study conducted in northwest Queensland. This study aimed to test the applicability of geophysical methods being routinely employed to locate a variety of open site features (particularly hearths and middens) as part of reconnaissance surveys. While not being entirely successful, this study demonstrated that certain archaeological features can be readily identified using geophysical techniques, though further research and trials should be carried out to refine the uses of these techniques to allow their more widespread applicability.