Lynn Robertson

Early referral strategies for management of people with markers of renal disease: a systematic review of the evidence of clinical effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and economic analysis.

BACKGROUND Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a long-term condition and has been described as the gradual loss of kidney function over time. Early in the disease process, people with CKD often experience no symptoms. For a long time, CKD has been an underdiagnosed condition. Even in the absence of symptoms, CKD appears to add significantly to the burden of cardiovascular disease and death and, for an important minority, can progress to kidney failure. OBJECTIVE To systematically review the evidence of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of early referral strategies for management of people with markers of renal disease. DATA SOURCES Electronic searches of 12 major databases (such as MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, etc.) were conducted for the time period of 1990 to April 2008 to identify studies comparing early referral to other care options for people with CKD. Additional searching was performed in the NHS Economic Evaluation Database to support the cost-effectiveness literature review. REVIEW METHODS Two authors reviewed all titles, abstracts and full papers to select relevant literature. A Markov model was constructed to represent the natural history of CKD. The model allowed cohorts to be tracked according to estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) status and the presence of other complications known to influence CKD progression and the incidence of cardiovascular events. RESULTS From 36 relevant natural history studies, CKD was found to be, despite marked heterogeneity between studies, a marker of increased risk of mortality, renal progression and end-stage renal disease. Mortality was generally high and increased with stage of CKD. After adjustment for comorbidities, the relative risk of mortality among those with CKD identified from the general population increased with stage. For clinical populations, the relative risk was higher. All three outcomes increased as eGFR fell. Only seven studies, and no randomised controlled trials, were identified as relevant to assessing the clinical effectiveness of early referral strategies for CKD. In the five retrospective studies constructed from cohorts starting on renal replacement therapy (RRT), mortality was reduced in the early referral group (more than 12 months prior to RRT) even as late as 5 years after initiation of RRT. Only two studies included predialysis participants. One study, in people screened for diabetic nephropathy, reported a reduction in the decline in renal function associated with early referral to nephrology specialists (eGFR decline 3.4 ml/min/1.73 m(2)) when compared with a similar group that had no access to nephrology services until dialysis was required (eGFR decline 12.0 ml/min/1.73 m(2)). The second study, among a group of veterans with two creatinine levels of at least 140 mg/dl, reported that a composite end point of death or progression was lower in the group receiving nephrology follow-up than in those receiving only primary care follow-up. The greatest effect was observed in those with stage 3 or worse disease after adjustment for comorbidities, age, race, smoking and proteinuria {stage 3: hazard ratio (HR) 0.8 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.61 to 0.9)]; stage 4: HR 0.75 (95% CI 0.45 to 0.89)}. In the base-case analysis, all early referral strategies produced more quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) than referral upon transit to stage 5 CKD (eGFR 15 ml/min/1.73 m(2)). Referral for everyone with an eGFR below 60 ml/min/1.73 m(2) (stage 3a CKD) generated the most QALYs and, compared with referral for stage 4 CKD (eGFR < 30 ml/min/1.73 m(2)), had an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of approximately 3806 pounds per QALY. LIMITATIONS Because of a lack of data on the natural history of CKD in individuals without diabetes, and a lack of evidence on the costs and effects of early referral, the Markov model relied on many assumptions. The findings were particularly sensitive to changes in eGFR decline rates and the relative effect of early referral on CKD progression and cardiovascular events; the latter parameter being derived from a single non-randomised study. CONCLUSIONS Despite substantial focus on the early identification and proactive management of CKD in the last few years, we have identified significant evidence gaps about how best to manage people with CKD. There was some evidence to suggest that the care of people with CKD could be improved and, because these people are at risk from both renal and cardiovascular outcomes, strategies to improve the management of people with CKD have the potential to offer an efficient use of health service resources. Given the number of people now being recognised as having markers of kidney impairment, there is an urgent need for further research to support service change.

What works with men? A systematic review of health promoting interventions targeting men

BackgroundEncouraging men to make more effective use of (preventive) health services is considered one way of improving their health. The aim of this study was to appraise the available evidence of effective interventions aimed at improving mens health.MethodsSystematic review of relevant studies identified through 14 electronic databases and other information resources. Results were pooled within health topic and described qualitatively.ResultsOf 11,749 citations screened, 338 articles were assessed and 27 met our inclusion criteria. Most studies were male sex-specific, i.e. prostate cancer screening and testicular self-examination. Other topics included alcohol, cardiovascular disease, diet and physical activity, skin cancer and smoking cessation. Twenty-three interventions were effective or partially effective and 18 studies satisfied all quality criteria.ConclusionMost of the existing evidence relates to male sex-specific health problems as opposed to general health concerns relevant to both men and women. There is little published evidence on how to improve mens uptake of services. We cannot conclude from this review that targeting men works better than providing services for all people. Large-scale studies are required to help produce evidence that is sufficiently robust to add to the small evidence base that currently exists in this field.

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and adult offspring cardiometabolic outcomes: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy include eclampsia, pre-eclampsia, gestational hypertension, pre-existing chronic hypertension and pre-eclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension.1 ,2 They affect up to 8% of pregnancies and are a major cause of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality.1 Chronic hypertension is associated with a much higher risk of pre-eclampsia and, in a subset of women, worsening of hypertension during pregnancy (without development of pre-eclampsia).3 ,4 Women with pre-eclampsia have an adverse cardiovascular risk profile in later life.5 ,6 Cardiovascular risk factors in the childhood and early adulthood of offspring of pregnancies affected by pre-eclampsia have been examined in two earlier systematic reviews. These found evidence of raised blood pressure (BP) and body mass index (BMI) in the offspring born to pre-eclamptic pregnancies.7 ,8 Less is known about the later life cardiovascular risk in offspring affected by maternal pre-eclampsia or other maternal hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, although some studies suggest a higher risk of cardiovascular disease, including hypertension9 and stroke10 in adulthood. The associations between hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and subsequent cardiovascular disease in the offspring are complex. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are associated with prematurity (which may be iatrogenic) and low birth weight even when corrected for gestation.11 Small for gestational age and gestation have been inversely associated with risk of cardiovascular disease.12 ,13 Furthermore, the strength of these associations varies by hypertensive disorder and severity of condition. We have systematically reviewed published papers of the association between maternal hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, and cardiovascular risk factors and disease in adult offspring. A systematic review of the published literature was undertaken. Inclusion criteria were: ### Types of study Observational epidemiological studies of offspring exposed in utero to a maternal hypertensive disorder of pregnancy. ### Types of participant Offspring aged at least 18 years at last …

Charlson index scores from administrative data and case-note review compared favourably in a renal disease cohort

BACKGROUND The Charlson index is a widely used measure of comorbidity. The objective was to compare Charlson index scores calculated using administrative data to those calculated using case-note review (CNR) in relation to all-cause mortality and initiation of renal replacement therapy (RRT) in the Grampian Laboratory Outcomes Mortality and Morbidity Study (GLOMMS-1) chronic kidney disease cohort. METHODS Modified Charlson index scores were calculated using both data sources in the GLOMMS-1 cohort. Agreement between scores was assessed using the weighted Kappa. The association with outcomes was assessed using Poisson regression, and the performance of each was compared using net reclassification improvement. RESULTS Of 3382 individuals, median age 78.5 years, 56% female, there was moderate agreement between scores derived from the two data sources (weighted kappa 0.41). Both scores were associated with mortality independent of a number of confounding factors. Administrative data Charlson scores were more strongly associated with death than CNR scores using net reclassification improvement. Neither score was associated with commencing RRT. CONCLUSION Despite only moderate agreement, modified Charlson index scores from both data sources were associated with mortality. Neither was associated with commencing RRT. Administrative data compared favourably and may be superior to CNR when used in the Charlson index to predict mortality.

Is routine hospital episode data sufficient for identifying individuals with chronic kidney disease? A comparison study with laboratory data

Internationally, investment in the availability of routine health care data for improving health, health surveillance and health care is increasing. We assessed the validity of hospital episode data for identifying individuals with chronic kidney disease compared to biochemistry data in a large population-based cohort, the Grampian Laboratory Outcomes, Morbidity and Mortality Study-II (n = 70,435). Grampian Laboratory Outcomes, Morbidity and Mortality Study-II links hospital episode data to biochemistry data for all adults in a health region with impaired kidney function and random samples of individuals with normal and unmeasured kidney function in 2003. We compared identification of individuals with chronic kidney disease by hospital episode data (based on International Classification of Diseases-10 codes) to the reference standard of biochemistry data (at least two estimated glomerular filtration rates <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 at least 90 days apart). Hospital episode data, compared to biochemistry data, identified a lower prevalence of chronic kidney disease and had low sensitivity (<10%) but high specificity (>97%). Using routine health care data from multiple sources offers the best opportunity to identify individuals with chronic kidney disease.

The reality of partnership working when undertaking an evaluation of a national Well Men's Service

Abstract Background: Partnership working has been a key tenet of health policy in Scotland since 1997. Much has been written about the benefits of partnership working, but it has been difficult to prove its effectiveness. This paper describes the reality of working in partnership when undertaking an evaluation of a complex intervention aimed at engaging with hard-to-reach men to improve their health. Methods: A collaborative model of working was used to develop an evaluation tool to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Six phases were used in the developmental process each involving a different group of stakeholders. The progress through these phases was not linear; it involved numerous iterative feedback loops. A number of challenges were faced at each phase and steps were taken to overcome them. Results: Four lessons emerged which are more generally applicable. Collaborative working is a slow process, a fact which key advocates in the field have failed to recognise. Study participants need to b...Background Partnership working has been a key tenet of health policy in Scotland since 1997. Much has been written about the benefits of partnership working, but it has been difficult to prove its effectiveness. This paper describes the reality of working in partnership when undertaking an evaluation of a complex intervention aimed at engaging with hard-to-reach men to improve their health.

Models of care for chronic kidney disease: a systematic review

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is common and presents an increasing burden to patients and health services. However, the optimal model of care for patients with CKD is unclear. We systematically reviewed the clinical effectiveness of different models of care for the management of CKD.

Hip fracture incidence and mortality in chronic kidney disease : the GLOMMS-II record linkage cohort study

Background Individuals on renal replacement therapy (RRT) have increased fracture risk, but risk in less advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) is unclear. Objective To investigate CKD associations with hip fracture incidence and mortality. Design Record linkage cohort study Grampian Laboratory Outcomes Mortality and Morbidity Study II. Setting Single health region in Scotland. Participants All individuals (≥15 years) with sustained CKD stages 3–5 and those on RRT, and a 20% random sample of those with normal renal function, in the resident population in 2003. Outcome measures Outcomes were (1) incident hip fracture measured with (A) admissions or (B) deaths, with at least 5.5 years follow-up and (2) post-hip fracture mortality. Unadjusted and adjusted, incident rate ratios (IRRs) and mortality rate ratios were calculated using Poisson regression. Results Of 39 630 individuals identified in 2003 (41% males, mean age 63.3 years), 19 537 had CKD stages 3–5, 345 were on RRT and 19 748 had normal estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Hip fracture incidence, measured by admissions, was increased in CKD stages 3–5 (compared with normal eGFR), both overall (adjusted IRR 1.49 (95% CI 1.24 to 1.79)) and for individual CKD stages 3a, 3b and 4. Hip fracture incidence, measured using deaths, was increased in those with CKD stages 3b and 4. Post-hip fracture mortality was only increased in CKD stage 4. There was only a small number of individuals and events for CKD stage 5, resulting in insufficient statistical power. Conclusion Hip fracture incidence was higher in CKD stages 3–5 compared with normal eGFR. Post-hip fracture mortality was only increased in CKD stage 4. Reducing hip fracture incidence in CKD through regular fall and fracture risk review should reduce overall deaths after hip fracture in the population.

Analysis of the safety and efficacy of diabetic ketoacidosis management in a Community General Hospital, 2001–2010: a descriptive study

Background The recommended place for treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis in children is a paediatric High Dependency Unit. This facility is not available in all areas where children with type 1 diabetes mellitus are cared for. Aims This study investigates the safety and efficacy of diabetic ketoacidosis management in a community general hospital without a paediatric high dependency unit. Methods Data from children with diabetic ketoacidosis were collected from all diabetes related admissions in Dr Gray’s Hospital, Elgin from 2001 to 2010. Observations were compared with safety indicators (pH, bicarbonate, glucose, electrolytes and cerebral oedema) and were reviewed for the recovery to normal values (pH, bicarbonate), without abnormal fluctuation (electrolytes, glucose) and without neurological complications (cerebral oedema). Results The 114 patients generated 251 diabetes-related admissions, 118 for diabetic ketoacidosis treatment of whom 99 patients were treated with intravenous fluids and insulin. The mean time to recover to a pH of at least 7.30 was 655 minutes (120–1410 min). There were 79 (4.37% of 1808) glucose readings dropping more than 5.0 mmol/l per hour. There were six hypoglycaemic events (2.3–2.9 mmol/l) and in one case potassium dropped to 2.2 mmol/l. There was no case which developed into cerebral oedema. Conclusion Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis in a community general hospital managed with a protocol for fluids, insulin and strict monitoring has shown to be effective in achieving recovery and to safely avoid complications.