Lynn T. Kozlowski

Recognizing friends by their walk: Gait perception without familiarity cues

Viewers can recognize themselves and others in an abstract display of their movements. Light sources mounted on joints prominent during the act of walking are sufficient cues for identification. No other information, no feedback, and little practice with such a display are needed. This procedure, developed by Johansson, holds promise for inquiry into the dimensions and features of event perception: It is both naturalistic and experimentally manageable.

Recognizing the sex of a walker from a dynamic point-light display

The sex of human walkers can be recognized without familiarity cues from displays of pointlight sources mounted on major joints. Static versions of these abstract displays do not permit accurate recognition of sex. Variation in the degree of armswing or in walking speed generally interferes with recognition, except that faster speeds are associated somewhat with improved recognition of females. Lights on upper-body joints permit more accurate guesses than do Lights on lower-body joints, but identification is possible even from minimal displays, with lights placed only on the ankles. No feedback was given to observers. Confidence judgments of sex relate to the accuracy of responses in a manner that suggests that viewers know what they are doing.

Predicting smoking cessation with self-reported measures of nicotine dependence: FTQ, FTND, and HSI

In two independent studies, we explored the usefulness of three self-report measures of tobacco dependence--the Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire (FTQ), the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), and the Heavy Smoking Index (HSI). The FTND is a revised version of the FTQ. The HSI is identical to a two-question subset of the FTND. Study 1 involved 932 participants in a seven-session, five-week, group smoking cessation program, and it looked at the ability of these self-report tests to predict expired air carbon monoxide (i.e., heaviness of smoking) at beginning of treatment and cessation at end of treatment. Study 2 involved 1877 participants in a self-help smoking cessation program, and it looked at the prediction of cessation at 16-month follow-up. All tests made statistically reliable predictions of smoking cessation, but generally accounted for little variance (about 1%). In Study 1, the test scores were associated positively with carbon monoxide levels. The shorter (six vs. eight questions), more reliable FTND is to be preferred to the FTQ; and the HSI (two questions) works as well as the FTND. Evidence is presented that suggests that samples of high-scoring smokers will not be well differentiated from the mid-range to the high-end of the scores.

Temporal and spatial factors in gait perception that influence gender recognition

Several temporal and spatial factors affect gender recognition of a walker when portrayed, without familiarity cues, as a dynamic point-light display. We demonstrate that, among temporal parameters, the duration of the dynamic stimulus must be longer than 1.6 sec, but that 2.7 sec is fully adequate. Given the speed of our walkers, the recognition threshold appears to be roughly two step cycles. In addition, presentation rate of the stimulus must be near to normal, perhaps because nonnormal rates alter apparent gravity and obscure the normal relationship between output and conservation of energy. We demonstrate that, among spatial factors, the discreteness of the joint information must be maintained for accurate recognition. We go on to argue that it is the information about the shoulder and the hip of a walker that is of primary importance. Finally, inversion of the stimulus display produces the unexpected effect of reversing the apparent sex of most walkers. That is, when presented upside down, male walkers appear female and female walkers appear male.

Cigarette filter ventilation is a defective design because of misleading taste, bigger puffs, and blocked vents

Objective: To review tobacco industry documents on filter ventilation in light of published studies and to explore the role of filter ventilation in the design of cigarettes that deliver higher smoke yields to smokers than would be expected from standard machine smoked tests (Federal Trade Commission (FTC), International Organization for Standardization (ISO)). Data sources: Searched from November 1999 to November 2000 internet databases of industry documents (www.pmdocs.com, www.rjrtdocs.com, www.lorillarddocs.com, www.bw.aalatg.com, www.cdc.gov/tobacco/industrydocs, www.tobaccodocuments.org, www.tobaccopapers.org, www.hlth.gov.bc.ca/Guildford, www.cctc.ca/ncth/Guildford, www.cctc.ca/ncth/Guildford2) for documents related to filter ventilation. Documents found dated from 1955 through 1994. Study selection: Those documents judged to contain the most relevant information or data on filter ventilation related to cigarette taste and compensatory smoking, while also trying to avoid redundancy from various documents deriving from the same underlying data. Data synthesis: Filter ventilation is a crucial design feature creating three main problems for lower tar cigarettes as measured by official smoking machine testing. Firstly, it misleadingly makes cigarettes taste lighter and milder, and, therefore, they appear less dangerous to smokers. Secondly, it promotes compensation mainly by facilitating the taking of larger puffs. Thirdly, for very heavily ventilated cigarettes (that is, > 65% filter air dilution), behavioural blocking of vents with lips or fingers is an additional contributor to compensatory smoking. These three effects are found in industry research as well as published research. Conclusions: Filter ventilation is a dangerous, defective technology that should be abandoned in less hazardous nicotine delivery systems. Health interested groups should test cigarettes in a way that reflects compensatory smoking. Lower tar (vented filter) cigarettes should be actively countermarketed.

Filter ventilation and nicotine content of tobacco in cigarettes from Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States

OBJECTIVES The purpose was to determine filter ventilation and the nicotine content of tobacco and their contribution to machine-smoked yields of cigarettes from the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. METHODS Ninety-two brands of cigarettes (32 American, 23 Canadian, and 37 British brands) were purchased at retail outlets in State College, Pennsylvania, United States, Toronto, Canada, and London, United Kingdom. A FIDUS FDT filter ventilation tester measured the percentage air-dilution from filter vents. High-pressure, liquid chromatography was used to measure the nicotine content of tobacco. Regression techniques were used to examine the contributions of tobacco nicotine content and filter ventilation to machine-smoked yields of tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide (CO). RESULTS Ninety-four per cent of the American brands, 91% of the Canadian brands, and 79% of British brands were ventilated. The total nicotine content of tobacco and percent nicotine (by weight of tobacco) averaged 10.2 mg (standard error of the mean (SEM) 0.25, range: 7.2 to 13.4) and 1.5% (SEM 0.03, range 1.2 to 2) in the United States, 13.5 mg (SEM 0.49, range: 8.0 to 18.3) and 1.8% (SEM 0.06, range: 1.0 to 2.4) in Canada, 12.5 mg (SEM 0.33, range: 9 to 17.5) and 1.7% (SEM 0.04, range: 1.3 to 2.4) in the United Kingdom. Multiple regression analyses showed that ventilation was by far the largest factor influencing machine-smoked yields of tar, nicotine, and CO. CONCLUSION Filter ventilation appears to be the predominant method for reducing machine-smoked yields of tar, nicotine, and CO in three countries. However, some brands contain about twice as much nicotine (total content or percent nicotine) as do others, indicating that tobacco types or blends and tobacco casings can be used to manipulate nicotine content and nicotine delivery of cigarettes.

Applying the risk/use equilibrium: use medicinal nicotine now for harm reduction

Both the recent Institute of Medicine (IOM) report1 and the article by Henningfield and Fagerstrom2 in this issue of Tobacco Control consider the value of adding harm reduction products to the main public health strategies for dealing with tobacco use—prevention, cessation, and protection of non-smokers from tobacco smoke pollution.3 4 Harm reducing products are those that lower total tobacco caused morbidity and mortality, even though these products might involve continued exposure to one or more tobacco related toxicants. The IOM committee developed a testing strategy to assess which products (tobacco or pharmaceutical) are truly harm reducing, along with surveillance and regulatory principles for the protection of public health. Henningfield and Fagerstrom2 discussed the possible benefits from an uncontrolled harm reduction “intervention” in Sweden involving Snus (Swedish moist snuff) and to some extent nicotine replacement pharmaceuticals or medicinal nicotine (MN). It will take years, if ever, before any battery of IOM-type tests will be in place. Given the probability of legal and political battles, the final form of testing and regulation may be far from adequate, leading to further decades of the promotion of ostensibly reduced risk products falsely reassuring tobacco users. Cigarette smoking remains the single leading preventable cause of death in most developed countries5 and a major cause of current and future deaths in developing countries.6 For health, non-smokers should never start smoking, and current smokers should become former smokers as soon as possible. Harm reduction, if done well, offers additional promise. Once it was hoped that lower tar cigarettes would have harm reducing properties and be good for the publics health,7but, on current evidence, they have been a public health disaster.8-11 One harm reduction strategy is to alter cigarettes to try to reduce or eliminate toxic ingredients. Such altered …

Patterns of alcohol, cigarette, and caffeine and other drug use in two drug abusing populations.

Relationships were explored among the frequencies of use of various drugs by a sample of drug-abusing clients of the Addiction Research Foundation (ARF) in Toronto and by drug abusers volunteering to participate in research at the Addiction Research Center (ARC) in Baltimore. The two groups of drug-abusing individuals differed in a number of characteristics. Those from ARF were admitted primarily for diagnosis and possible treatment for alcohol and non-opioid drug problems, whereas those from the ARC were admitted for participation in research on other drugs of abuse, primarily involving opioids. Patterns of use of certain drugs tended to covary in both groups. Of particular interest was the finding that severity of alcoholism was directly related to various measures of tobacco and caffeinated beverage use. In contrast, there was little correlation between the frequency of use among other drugs of abuse (e.g., heroin, cannabis, glue) and the use of tobacco and caffeine. These findings suggest that dependence on nicotine, caffeine, and alcohol may be governed by the same factors and possibly should be considered jointly in the treatment of alcoholic persons. Frequency of use of other drugs examined may be controlled by other factors than those which determine level of use of tobacco and caffeine.

Harm reduction, public health, and human rights: Smokers have a right to be informed of significant harm reduction options

Public health policy needs to be assessed for effects on human rights as well as public health. Although promoting harm reduction products to cigarette smokers might lead to greater total public health harm, if the products become too popular, human rights issues also need to be considered. Avoiding, or objecting to, the fair presentation of information on effective harm reduction products to smokers to allow them to make an informed choice to reduce health risk can represent a violation of a human right - the right to information. The necessary conditions are not met for protecting public health by restricting information on certain risk reduction products. As examples, based on current evidence, smokers have a right to information on snus (Swedish moist snuff) and medicinal nicotine as harm reduction options that would reduce substantially the risk of death to individuals. Smokers also have a right to truthful information about lower-tar cigarettes that have been erroneously promoted as risk reducing.

“Not safe” is not enough: smokers have a right to know more than there is no safe tobacco product

The right to health relevant information derives from the principles of autonomy and self direction and has been recognised in international declarations. Providing accurate health information is part of the basis for obtaining “informed consent” and is a recognised component of business ethics, safety communications, and case and product liability law. Remarkably, anti-tobacco and pro-tobacco sources alike have come to emphasise the message that there is “no safe cigarette” or “no safe tobacco product”. We propose that the “no safe” message is so limited in its value that it represents a violation of the right to health relevant information. There is a need to go beyond saying, “there is no safe tobacco product” to indicate information on degree of risks. The “no safe tobacco” message does not contradict, for example, the mistaken belief that so called light or low tar cigarettes are safer choices than higher tar cigarettes. We encourage a kind of “rule utilitarian” ethical position in which the principle of truth telling is observed while trying to produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Although harm reduction approaches to easing the burden of tobacco related diseases are founded on science based comparative risk information, the right to health information is independently related to the need to promote health literacy. This right should be respected whether or not harm reduction policies are judged advisable.