Lynne Evans

Hardiness and the competitive trait anxiety response

This study examined the effects of hardiness, its subcomponents and skill level upon the intensity and direction dimensions of competitive trait anxiety and self‐confidence intensity. Participants (n = 199) completed the Dispositional Resilience Scale, a modified version of the Sport Anxiety Scale and the self‐confidence scale extracted from a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory‐2. Findings partially supported the hypotheses that elite athletes high in hardiness, commitment and control would demonstrate lower levels of worry and a more facilitative interpretation of the anxiety response. Self‐confidence analyses revealed significant interactions for the commitment and skill interaction only. No interactions were found between skill level and challenge, although main effects were evident for intensity (challenge) and direction (skill level): These findings identify hardiness as an important personality construct within a sport specific situation, and provide support for skill level as being a vital individual difference variable” when measuring competitive anxiety. The role of self‐confidence and possible coping behaviors are also discussed, as are measurement issues regarding the cognitive terms of “worry” and “concern”.

Imagery Use During Rehabilitation from Injury

The purpose of the present study was to explore the use of imagery by injured athletes during rehabilitation. Four athletes were interviewed about their imagery use at three phases of their rehabilitation; early, mid, and late. Athletes primarily used cognitive, healing, and pain management imagery. Cognitive specific imagery, which involved the rehearsal of specific performance skills was used largely to enhance self-confidence, and healing and pain management imagery were used to promote healing and deal with pain. However, differences emerged between athletes use of imagery at different time phases and in response to different sources of stress/concerns. The study provided support for the effect of a number of variables on athletes responses to injury, proposed by Wiese-Bjornstal et al.s (1998) integrated model of response.

Perceived Benefits Following Sport Injury: A Qualitative Examination of their Antecedents and Underlying Mechanisms

This study examined the antecedents and mechanisms underlying the perceived benefits following sport injury. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 previously injured athletes. The transcripts were content analyzed and the emergent themes displayed by causal networks (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Findings revealed a number of perceived benefits, which emanated from several antecedents across three temporal phases: (a) injury onset (e.g., emotional response), (b) rehabilitation (e.g., free time), and (c) return to competition sport (e.g., reflective practice). The participants also reported a number of mechanisms through which they derived their perceived benefits, including self-disclosure to others and mobilizing ones social support network. The findings have implications for enabling athletes to transform their injury from a potentially debilitating experience into an opportunity for growth and development.

Injury Rehabilitation: A Qualitative Follow-up Study

Abstract The current qualitative follow-up study was conducted to enhance the interpretability and meaningfulness of the findings emerging from a 5-week goal-setting intervention study with injured athletes. Semistructured interviews were conducted with a sample of 9 injured athletes, 3 from each of the three intervention study groups (goal-setting, social support control, and control), and cross-case summaries were inductively derived. The study highlighted the importance of individual difference variables, and the interaction of person and situational variables, including support from coaches and club, inability to train, weight gain, slowness of progress, physiotherapist support, and the importance of long-term outcome goals. Possible mechanisms for the observed effects of the goal-setting intervention included the effects of goal-setting on self-efficacy, attributions, perceptions of control, and attention.

Great British medalists: Psychosocial biographies of Super-Elite and Elite athletes from Olympic sports

Participants were 32 former GB athletes from Olympic sports, 16 Super-Elite athletes who had won multiple medals at major championships, and 16 matched Elite athletes who had not. In-depth interviews with the athletes, their coaches, and one of their parents explored all psychosocial aspects of their development and careers. Content analyses revealed that there were no differences between Super-Elite and Elite athletes with regard to family values, conscientiousness, or commitment to training. However, the two groups were found to be different with regard to: (1) the experience of a foundational negative life event coupled with a foundational positive sport-related event; (2) the experience of a career turning point that enhanced motivation and focus for their sport; (3) need for success; (4) obsessiveness and/or perfectionism with regard to training and performance; (5) ruthlessness and/or selfishness in the pursuit of their sporting goals; (6) dual focus on both mastery and outcome; (7) the use of counterphobic attitudes and/or total preparation to maintain higher levels of performance under pressure; and (8) the relative importance of sport over other aspects of life. The results are discussed within the context of psychodynamic theory, and recommendations are made for both applied implications and future research.

Examination of the Validity of the Social Support Survey Using Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Abstract The Social Support Survey (SSS), validated by Richman, Rosenfeld, and Hardy (1993), is a multidimensional self-report measure of social support tested with student athletes. The SSS contains eight dimensions of support. For each dimension of support the same four questions are posed. The SSS could, therefore, be scored in two ways: (a) to derive a score for the support dimensions; (b) to derive a score for the questions posed across all eight support dimensions. Confirmatory factor analyses of the SSS on 416 university athletes revealed poor fits to models for both the eight support dimensions and the four questions across all eight dimensions. This problem was clarified by using a multitrait-multimethod model, which led to improved model fit but revealed that most of the SSS items were two-dimensional. Caution should, therefore, be exercised in using the SSS as a measure of multidimensional social support.

An in-depth appraisal of career termination experiences in professional cricket

Abstract This qualitative study explored the career termination experiences of 9 male, retired professional cricketers between the ages of 28 and 40 (mean value 34, s = 4.65 m). The participants took part in retrospective, semi-structured interviews. Data from the interviews were inductively content analysed within three transition phases of the retirement process: reasons for retirement, factors affecting adaptation and reactions to retirement. The reasons for retirement were multicausal with the majority of the participants highlighting contractual pressures and a lack of communication as important precursors to retirement. Three main themes accounted for the factors affecting adaptation: a limited pursuit of other interests, developmental experiences and coping strategies. In terms of reactions to retirement, all of the participants reflected negatively on the termination of their career, with a sense of loss and resentment characterising the post-retirement period. The findings illustrated the sport-specific nature of career termination in professional cricket and added further support to the emerging consensus that the distinction between voluntary and involuntary retirement is, at best, unclear.

A Grounded Theory of Sport Injury-Related Growth

Although previous research has shown that experiencing an injury can act as a catalyst for self-development, research that has examined the concept of sport injury-related growth (SIRG) remains largely descriptive. This study aimed to address this by developing a substantive theory to explain the processes through which injured athletes experienced SIRG. Using Strauss and Corbin’s (1998) variant of grounded theory, 37 injured athletes competing in a range of sports and competitive levels participated in qualitative interviews. Interviews (N = 70) and data analysis were conducted over a period of 24 months. Transcripts were analyzed using open, axial, and selective coding. Quality criteria used were fit, relevance, workability, and modifiability. The grounded theory produced (i.e., Theory of Sport Injury-Related Growth) suggests a number of internal (i.e., personality, coping styles, knowledge, and prior experience, and perceived social support) and external factors (i.e., cultural scripts, physical resources, time, and received social support) enable injured athletes to transform their injury into an opportunity for growth and development. The mechanisms through which this occurs are metacognitions, positive reappraisal, positive emotions, and facilitative responses. This theory offers a number of exciting avenues for future research, and provides medical personnel and practicing sport psychologists with a detailed explanation of how sport injury can lead to growth experiences.

Great British medalists: Response to the commentaries

Hardy et al. (2017) reported the findings of a large-scale, multisource, qualitative study that examined the commonalities of, and discriminators between, a group of super-elite (SE) and a group of elite (E) athletes who were matched on gender, sport, discipline, and era. Fifteen research teams who are actively engaged in research in the domain then provided critical commentaries on the target paper. In our response to these commentaries, we briefly remind the reader of the primary findings of the original paper and then deal with the commentaries under the subheadings: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Elite Performance; Mediating and Moderating Variables; Methodological Issues; Omissions; and Alternative Approaches. Finally, we discuss the very small number of disagreements that we have with any of the commentaries.

Great British medallists: Response to the commentaries

Hardy et al. (2017) reported the findings of a large-scale, multisource, qualitative study that examined the commonalities of, and discriminators between, a group of super-elite (SE) and a group of elite (E) athletes who were matched on gender, sport, discipline, and era. Fifteen research teams who are actively engaged in research in the domain then provided critical commentaries on the target paper. In our response to these commentaries, we briefly remind the reader of the primary findings of the original paper and then deal with the commentaries under the subheadings: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Elite Performance; Mediating and Moderating Variables; Methodological Issues; Omissions; and Alternative Approaches. Finally, we discuss the very small number of disagreements that we have with any of the commentaries.