Lynne Zarbatany

Social referencing as a function of information source: Mothers versus strangers.

This study tested the notion that infants selectively reference (i.e., seek and utilize information from) their mothers rather than strangers when faced with a novel event. Fourteen-month-old infants were exposed to an uncertainty-provoking stimulus (a toy spider). The infants mothers or a female stranger then conveyed a joyful or fearful facial expression to help define the event. Consistent with prior research, infants responded differently to the spider in the two conditions. However, differential responding occurred only in the presence of mothers, supporting the notion that infant social referencing is selective. Furthermore, infants who initially expressed fear of the spider waited longer to look at the adults affective display and were less influenced by the display than were infants who expressed uncertainty. This confirmed that uncertainty promotes referencing.

Gender‐Differentiated Experience in the Peer Culture: Links to Intimacy in Preadolescence

This study tested claims that gender differences in intimacy are attributable to gender-differentiated experiences in the peer culture (i.e., male and female ‘worlds’). Participants were 188 Canadian preadolescents (10–12 years, 106 girls) who completed questionnaires regarding the intimacy of their same-sex best friendship, intimate support received from peers, and two dimensions of culture–gender composition of the friendship network and participation in communal (i.e., intimacy-promoting) and agentic (intimacy-repressing) activities. Consistent with the ‘two worlds’ explanation (a) communal activity participation related positively and team sports negatively to same-sex friendship intimacy, but the latter only for boys, and (b) having other-sex friends predicted same-sex friendship intimacy for boys but not girls. The two worlds explanation, though supported, requires revision to accommodate findings that male and female preadolescents’ activity participation overlapped considerably, intimate friendships were not limited to intimate contexts, agentic activities potentiated both agentic and communal goals, and peer cultural variables predicted intimacy better for boys than girls.

Explaining Friendship Formation and Friendship Stability: The Role of Children's and Friends' Aggression and Victimization

This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of childrens and their friends victimization, overt aggression, and relational aggression. Participants were 605 pre- and early adolescents in fifth through eighth grades (M age = 12.05) assessed twice over a three-month period. Scores for stability and acquisition of same-sex reciprocated friendships were derived from unlimited friendship nominations. Peer nominations provided scores for child and friend victimization and aggression. Only victimized children experienced difficulty forming new friendships, evidence of their persistent social problems. Dissimilarity between friends on relational aggression (all children) and victimization (girls only) predicted friendship termination, however; overtly aggressive children had difficulty maintaining friendships regardless of their friends aggression. These findings point to the importance of considering the relational context (characteristics of children and their friends) and gender when assessing friendship stability.

Personality and Gender Differences in Friendship Needs and Experiences in Preadolescence and Young Adulthood.

Personality and gender differences in close same-sex friendship needs and experiences were investigated in two samples. Participants were 312 university students (217 women, M age 1/4 19.5) and 491 preadolescents (269 girls, M age 1/4 11.87). Participants completed several questionnaires yielding scores for communion and agency (personality), communal and agentic friendship needs, actual communal and agentic provisions of a best friendship, and affective functioning (satisfaction with the best friendship, loneliness). Findings revealed that close friendship serves both communal (connection) and agentic (social prominence) needs. Agency and/or communion predicted friendship needs and experiences and affective correlates of failure to meet friendship needs (friendship satisfaction, loneliness). Thus, friendship is not a homogeneous experience, but is shaped by the dispositions of the individuals who comprise it. Gender differences emerged in communal and agentic friendship needs and experiences; however, consensus among male and female participants regarding the functions of close friendship fails to support strong claims regarding gender-differentiated “worlds.”

Shyness and Unsociability and Their Relations With Adjustment in Chinese and Canadian Children

The goal of this study was to examine relations between different forms of social withdrawal (shyness, unsociability) and indexes of adjustment in Chinese and Canadian children. Participants were fourth- to eighth-grade students in urban China (n = 787) and Canada (n = 1,033). Data on social withdrawal and adjustment were obtained from multiple sources, including peer nominations, child self-reports, teacher ratings, and school records. Multigroup tests indicated that relations between shyness and adjustment did not differ in Chinese and Canadian children. However, relations between unsociability and adjustment variables were significantly different across the countries, with unsociability more strongly associated with adjustment difficulties in China than in Canada. Results are discussed in terms of historical and cultural backgrounds related to values of group orientation and individuality.

A Context Perspective on Early Adolescents' Friendship Expectations

Contextual underpinnings of early adolescents friendship expectations were assessed in this study. In private interviews, 67 10- to 12-year-old children (38 girls) described behavior they would like same-and opposite-sex friends to perform in five peer activities (academic, telephone conversations, watching TV/listening to music sports, games). Responses were coded using a modified version of the Bigelow and LaGaipa friendship expectation dimensions. Friendship expectations varied for activities but not for same and opposite-sex friends. For competitive activities (sports, games), friends were expected to perform behavior supportive of self-evaluation, such as ego reinforcement and preferential treatment. For noncompetitive activities, relationship enhancing expectations such as inclusion, common interests, and acceptance were evident. Helping was expected for academic activities. These findings indicate that the psychological meaning of friendship expectations cannot be discerned without considering the context in which they are embedded.

Teachers' acceptance of strategies for increasing students' achievement motivation

Abstract Teachers acceptance of strategies for increasing students achievement motivation was examined. A total of 44 preservice, 36 primary (Grades 1 to 4), and 28 intermediate (Grades 5 to 8) teachers rated the viability of 6 strategies (goal setting, cooperative learning, mastery learning, mastery goal orientation, task-related comments, task choices) on several dimensions. All but one strategy (mastery learning) were acceptable. Acceptability was related to time involved and familiarity with the strategies, as well as teaching experience and students achievement levels. The findings provide evidence for the social validity of the strategies and a basis for optimism about teachers likely willingness to use the strategies.

Social Sensitivity and Adjustment in Chinese and Canadian Children.

This study examined relations of social sensitivity to socioemotional and school adjustment in Chinese and Canadian children. Participants were fourth- to eighth-grade students (Mage xa0=xa012xa0years) in China (nxa0=xa0723) and Canada (nxa0=xa0568). Data were obtained from multiple sources. The analyses revealed that the pattern of relations between social sensitivity and indexes of adjustment differed in the two countries. Social sensitivity was negatively associated with social and school adjustment and positively associated with psychological distress in Canadian children. However, social sensitivity was positively associated with school competence and psychological well-being in Chinese children. The results indicate that childrens social sensitivity may have different functional meanings in Chinese and North American societies.

Peer Groups as a Context for School Misconduct: The Moderating Role of Group Interactional Style

Peer group interactional style was examined as a moderator of the relation between peer group school misconduct and group members school misconduct. Participants were 705 students (Mage xa0=xa011.59xa0years, SDxa0=xa01.37) in 148 peer groups. Children reported on their school misconduct in fall and spring. In the winter, group members were observed in a limited-resource task and a group conversation task, and negative and positive group interactional styles were assessed. Multilevel modeling indicated that membership in groups that were higher on school misconduct predicted greater school misconduct only when the groups were high on negative or low on positive interactional style. Results suggest that negative laughter and a coercive interactional style may intensify group effects on childrens misconduct.

Affiliation with Socially Withdrawn Groups and Children’s Social and Psychological Adjustment

This 1-year longitudinal study examined the effects of membership in socially withdrawn peer groups on children’s social and psychological adjustment in a sample of 979 children (417 boys, 562 girls, M ageu2009=u200911.84xa0years). Data on children’s social and psychological adjustment and problems were collected from peer nominations and self-reports in the fall and spring of a single academic year. Using the Social Cognitive Map, 162 peer groups were identified. Multilevel analyses showed that affiliation with withdrawn groups negatively predicted social competence and school attitude, and positively predicted victimization and depression. The results suggest that affiliation with socially withdrawn groups is a risk factor for the development of social and psychological problems.