M. Anthony Melchiors

VARIATION IN GASTROINTESTINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MALE AND FEMALE WHITE-TAILED DEER: IMPLICATIONS FOR RESOURCE PARTITIONING

We assessed variation in intestinal lengths and gut capacity of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We hypothesized that differences in morphology of males and females could have important implications relative to intersexual variation in patterns of habitat use and forage acquisition. Deer were collected from study areas in McCurtain Co., Oklahoma, and Howard and Pike counties, Arkansas. Populations of white-tailed deer in McCurtain and Howard counties were in poorer nutritional condition than deer in Pike Co. possibly because of competitive interactions with cattle stocked on study areas in McCurtain and Howard counties. Lactating females had longer gastrointestinal tracts and more digesta within their rumens and intestines than did males in summer and winter. Lactating females also had longer intestinal tracts and more digesta in rumens and intestines than did pregnant females during winter. Nonpregnant females in winter were primarily fawns with low body mass, but did not differ from adult females or males relative to gastrointestinal characteristics. Females collected from Pike Co. in winter had less digesta in rumens and intestines than did other populations. Additionally, deer collected from Pike Co. in winter had proportionately less digesta in rumens and more digesta in intestines than other populations. Our findings indicated that sexual segregation of populations of white-tailed deer in summer results from females attempting to maintain maximum volume of digesta in gastrointestinal tracts; winter segregation might be influenced by dietary selection.

Effectiveness of predator fecal odors as black-tailed deer repellents

Pen bioassays were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of predator fecal odors as deer repellents. Aqueous extracts from predator feces were more effective than BGR (4.9% egg solids) and as effective as BGR-P (36% egg solids). In Test I, browsing reductions for the predator feces tested were: bobcat (Felis rufus)-51%; mountain lion (F. concolor)-27%; wolf (Canis lupus)-17%; and coyote (C. latrans)8%. The efficacy of fecal extracts in Test I correlated with the concentration of predator feces in initial formulations (5, 10, and 20% by weight). In Test II, increasing the concentration of feces to 30% for bobcat and mountain lion did not increase their repellency. Fecal odors of predators significantly suppressed the feeding activities of black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus); however, additional laboratory and fieldwork are needed before predator odors can be used operationally. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 49(2):358-362 Chemical signals of an olfactory nature modify behavioral activities of mammalian prey species (Griffith 1920, Stoddart 1976, Thiessen and Rice 1976, Hennessy and Owings 1978). In some species of ungulates, odors of predators elicit the same response as actual sightings of predators (Schaller 1967). These concepts are employed occasionally when people attempt to protect gardens, orchards, landscaping, and other plantings from animal damage by placing the hides or seats of predators around or near the vegetation (Ives 1960; Miiller-Schwarze 1972; I. Guaditz, pers. commun.). In the Pacific Northwest, browsing damage to forest tree seedlings by deer and elk (Cervus elaphus) can cause seedling mortality or height reduction such that reforestation efforts may fail (Black et al. 1969, Crouch 1974). Several deer repellents are marketed for the control of browsing damage to forest trees and other vegetation, yet there is a continuing interest in the scientific community to develop a more repellent or longer lasting formulation. Other investigators have demonstrated that the presence of predator seats (Miiller-Schwarze 1972) and fecal odors (Campbell and Bullard 1972) in bowls of food offered to black-tailed deer suppress feeding. Miiller-Schwarze found that feces from predators sympatric with blacktailed deer elicited the most consistent negative response and suggested that black-tailed deer and possibly other ungulates possess an innate negative response to predator odors. Additional information on the relationship of predator odors and cervid browsing behavior is needed to determine whether such odors can be used as repellents. As part of a more comprehensive repellent screening program, this investigation evaluated the efficacy of several predator fecal odors as deer-browsing deterrents. We thank D. L. Dunham for statistical support during the bioassay of predator odors. The assistance of D. M. Hancocks and G. W. Jorgensen of the Woodland Park Zool. Gardens and W. J. Iliff and J. S. McCusker of the Washington Park Zoo is appreciated for providing feces from captive animals. J. A. Rochelle, I. Gauditz, and R. J. Anderson provided helpful comments on the manuscript.

Effect of compositing samples on analysis of fecal nitrogen

We compared percent nitrogen of 12 composited fecal samples of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with means of samples that were analyzed individually (n = 191). We hypothesized that composites and means of individual samples would be similar in fecal nitrogen (FN). No significant differences in FN were found between composites and means of individuals (P > 0.70). Comparison of deer populations using composites and individuals yielded similar results (P > 0.10). J. WILDL. MANAGE. 53(1):213-215 Compositing fecal samples is common in studies of wildlife nutrition (Kie and Burton 1984, Leslie and Starkey 1985). Large numbers of samples can be handled in less time when aliquots of individual samples are combined into composites because the number of analyses is reduced. Also, many small mammal species may not produce adequate amounts of fecal material for individual analysis. However, the assumption that composites are similar to means of individual samples has not been tested and some information (e.g., sample variance) is unavailable when composites are used in statistical anal-

Wild turkey home ranges in the Ouachita Mountains

Home-range areas were determined for 21 wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas. Annual minimum ranges were larger than previously reported for wild turkeys (i = 3,514 ha), and seasonal minimum ranges averaged 1,295 ha. Variation in annual home range size was correlated with the percentage of the area within each home range composed of habitat characteristics typical of young pine (Pinus spp.) plantations. Reducing the rate at which native stands have been converted to plantations, distributing young plantations evenly among native stands, and applying sawtimber rotations are suggested to enhance turkey habitat. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 50(4):540-544 The wild turkey is a species of management importance throughout much of the United States. For example, during the spring of 1983, approximately 120,000 wild turkeys were harvested in the southeastern United States (Kennamer 1983), and the aesthetic appeal of the wild turkey makes it valuable to the nonconsumptive public. The Ouachita Mountains region is important to users of the wild turkey resource in Arkansas. Although this region constitutes only 14% of the Arkansas land base and 19% of the commercial forestland, it yielded an annual average of 37% of turkeys harvested throughout the state between 1980 and 1983 (Arkansas Game and Fish Comm. 1983). The proximity of the Ouachita Mountains to major urban areas of the state adds to the value of this region. Knowledge of home-range parameters is a near requisite for management of a species. Although home-range area for wild turkeys has been reported in numerous studies (Brown 1980), habitat conditions reported in other studies are not representative of the Ouachita Mountains. Soils in this region are less productive than in many portions of the state, and many areas are under even-aged pine management. The objectives of this study, therefore, were to estimate home-range parameters for wild turkeys in the Ouachita Mountains region of Arkansas and to identify habitat characteristics that influence those parameters. We thank all personnel with the Arkansas Game and Fish Comm., U.S. For. Serv., and Weyerhaeuser Co. who assisted with this study. Special thanks are due E. H. Black, B. G. Cantrell, R. L. Crossett, D. M. Harris, T. Scott, and D. F. Urbston. The editorial assistance of R. S. Beasley, J. M. Guldin, J. A. Rochelle, and L. C. Thompson also is gratefully acknowledged. This study was financed through McIntire-Stennis funds and a grant by Weyerhaeuser Co., and is a tribution of the Arkansas Agric. Exp. Stn.

Glycosylated Hemoglobin as a Stable Alternative to Serum Glucose in White-tailed Deer

We compared serum glucose concentration and percent glycosylated hemoglobin (GH) in captive and wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to determine stability of glucose relative to GH. Temporal changes in levels of serum glucose and GH were ascertained from serial blood samples collected from three captive deer over a 2-week period. State of glycemia also was determined for 17 wild deer that were collected from three populations in southeastern Oklahoma and southwestern Arkansas (USA). Concentration of serum glucose of captive deer decreased (P = 0.04) from 190.4 to 155.8 mg/dl over the 2 weeks; percent GH did not differ temporally (P = 0.30). Percent GH of wild deer did not differ (P = 0.23) when deer were separated into 2 groups (high and low state of glycemia) based on the median serum glucose concentration. We found a significant difference (P = 0.04) in percent GH among wild deer populations; serum glucose concentration did not differ (P = 0.72) among populations. Our results indicate that percent GH is more stable than serum glucose concentration and may be useful in population comparisons of nutritional condition.

A comparison of bottles and snap traps for short-term small mammal sampling

-Bottles were tested as traps for small mammals. Used in conjunction with three types of snap traps over 30,240 trap nights, bottles captured eight (2%) of the total 421 mammals taken. Bottles were inefficient in capturing small mammals compared to snap traps. A recent report presented the first account in North America of large numbers of shrews and lesser numbers of other small mammals becoming entrapped in discarded bottles along roadsides (Pagels and French, 1987). As many as 17 southern shorttailed shrews (Blarina carolinensis) were found in 1, 10-ounce soft drink bottle in Virginia. Pagels and French pointed out that roadside bottle surveys can be used to augment standard trapping techniques and provide data on species distribution that can be obtained in a relatively short period of time over a broad geographical range. No subsequent studies have been published in which bottles were used to gather data on small mammal populations. This report presents data on the comparative effectiveness of bottles and snap traps in capturing small mammals in a controlled trapping regime. As part of a cooperative study of wildlife communities in managed forest lands in central Arkansas, small mammals were trapped for 10 consecutive days from 9 February to 18 February 1990. Our 18 study areas were each 80 x 200 m and included a centrally located stream surrounded by pine plantation. Most study areas also contained a streamside management zone (SMZ) or natural pinehardwood riparian forest strip from 20-160 m wide. The 84 trap lines with nine stations each at 20-m intervals ran parallel to the creeks; 540 stations in SMZs, 162 in plantation, and 54 in a natural forest site. At each of the 756 trap stations four traps were set: 1 Victor mouse trap, 1 Museum Special, 1 Victor rat trap, and 1 16-ounce disposable glass soft drink bottle. Snap traps were baited with a mixture of rolled oats, peanut butter and vegetable oil. We placed each bottle in a slight depression and slanted it upward at about a 300 angle so that the mouth was at ground level. Bottles were baited with molasses and oat horse feed pellets which were used for their ease of insertion into the bottles and for their similarity in composition to our snap trap bait. Frequent rains during the sampling period caused most bottles to collect some water, which we poured out before adding fresh bait. At each station traps were placed beside down wood or other natural runs and were generally spaced less than 2 m apart. A total of 421 mammals representing 13 species were collected in 30,240 (26,574 after subtracting sprung empty traps) trap nights (one trap set for 24 h = 1 trap night). The 14 specimens of four large species captured in rat traps were not included in the comparative totals data (Table 1). Based on a chi-square test, there was no difference (P > 0.05) in the proportion of catches in any of the snap traps for each of the three most commonly captured species. However, trapping success for bottles was significantly less (P < 0.001) than for snap traps. We assume that the species included in the table which were not actually captured in bottles could have become entrapped, since Pagels and French (1987) reported finding deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), least shrews (Cryptotis parva) and white-footed mice (P. leucopus) in roadside bottles. In addition to comparing capture success between bottles and snap traps, we also wanted to determine if bottles would sample mammals not readily taken in snap traps, such as the least shrew (Mengak and Guynn, 1987). Although discarded bottles along roadsides have been shown to be a valuable source of information on the distribution of certain small mammals (Glegg, 1966; Morris and Harper, 1965; Pagels and French, 1987), our results indicate that bottles are ineffective as a technique for capturing small mammals in a short-term trapping regime and offer no advantage over snap traps in sampling very small mammals. It is possible that, though both baits were a sweetened oat mixture, the difference in the bait used in bottles accounted for the low capture rate. More probably, the small orifice (20 mm diam) of the bottle prevented the aroma of the bait from dispersing as widely as that on an exposed snap trap paddle, thereby greatly reducing the comparative attraction of bottle bait to nearby mammals. 208 This content downloaded from 166.4.144.148 on Tue, 28 Jan 2014 14:12:28 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 1992 NOTES AND DISCUSSION 209