M. D. Mitchell

Electron-beam-generated x rays from X pinches

X pinches are well known to produce very small, dense plasma pinches (“micropinches”) that emit short bursts of 1.5–8keV radiation [Shelkovenko et al., Phys. Plasmas 9, 2165 (2002)]. X-ray radiation in the 8–100keV range is also emitted, only a small portion of which is associated with the micropinches. Beginning immediately after the soft x-ray burst, higher energy x-ray emission is observed that is attributed to energetic electrons accelerated in the gaps that appear in the X-pinch plasma structure. The temporal, spectral, and spatial properties of this higher energy radiation (8–100keV) have been studied using two ∼0.1μs pulsed power generators, one operating at up to 450kA peak current and the other up to 270kA. This radiation was also used for imaging in a low magnification configuration, and spatial resolution of a few tens of micrometers was demonstrated.

Accelerated electrons and hard X-ray emission from X-pinches

The generation of accelerated electrons in the X-pinch minidiode is studied experimentally. It is well known that the explosion of an X-pinch consisting of two or more wires is accompanied by the formation of a minidiode, in which electrons are accelerated. The subsequent slowing down of electrons in the products of wire explosion causes the generation of hard X-ray (HXR) emission with photon energies higher than 10 keV. In this work, the spatial and temporal characteristics of X-pinch HXR emission are studied, the specific features of HXR generation are discussed, and the capability of applying this radiation to point-projection X-ray imaging of various plasma and biological objects is considered. The parameters of the electron beam produced in the X-pinch are measured using a Faraday cup and X-ray diagnostics. The experiments were performed with the XP generator (550 kA, 100 ns) at Cornell University (United States) and the BIN generator (270 kA, 150 ns) at the Lebedev Physical Institute (Russia).

Cross calibration of new x-ray films against direct exposure film from 1 to 8keV using the X-pinch x-ray source

A cross calibration of readily available x-ray sensitive films has been carried out against the calibrated direct exposure film (DEF) which is no longer being manufactured by Kodak. Four-wire X pinches made from various metal wires were used as x-ray sources for this purpose. Tests were carried out for the Kodak films Biomax MS, Biomax XAR, M100, Technical Pan, and T-Max over the energy range of 1–8keV (12.4–1.5A wavelength). The same hand-development procedures as described by Henke et al. [J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 3, 1540 (1986)] were followed for all films in every test. Sensitivity curves as a function of wavelength for these films relative DEF are presented. These relative calibrations show that Biomax MS is likely to be the best replacement film for DEF for most purposes over the energy range tested here.

Response model for Kodak Biomax-MS film to x rays

X-ray-sensitive film is used for a variety of imaging and spectroscopic diagnostics for high-temperature plasmas. Replacement film must be found as older films are phased out of production. Biomax-MS is a “T-grain” class of film that is proposed as a replacement for Kodak DEF and a model of its response to x rays is presented. Data from dimensional measurements of the film, x-ray transmission measurements, scanning electron microscopy micrograph images, and x-ray calibration are used to develop this sensitivity model of Biomax-MS film as a function of x-ray energy and angle of incidence. Relative response data provide a check of the applicability of this model to determine the x-ray flux from spectrum data. This detailed film characterization starts with simple mathematical models and extends them to T-grain–type film.

Studies of energetic electrons with space and time resolution in Mo and W X-pinches from measurements of x rays >9 keV

Electron beams in 400 kA peak current Mo and W X-pinches have been studied using 1 ns time-resolution Si diodes to monitor x rays >9 keV. Softer x rays were monitored by photoconducting detectors (PCDs). Three different types of higher energy x-ray bursts were observed. The first type appears to be produced by electrons generated starting at the moment of, or immediately after, the first thermal x-ray burst (typically 40–50 ns after the current start), and Si detector signals last 1–2 ns. The second type of harder x-ray burst occurs 50–80 ns after the current start, lasts 2.5–10 ns, and is typically not correlated with a thermal x-ray burst. These two types of bursts were generated near the cross-wire region. The third type of x-ray burst occurs 70–100 ns after the current start, and is also uncorrelated with PCD signals. The energetic electrons responsible for these x rays are generated for 10–30 ns, and the radiation is produced in the anode region.

Extreme luminosity imaging conical spectrograph

A new configuration for a two-dimensional (2D) imaging x-ray spectrograph based on a conically bent crystal is introduced: extreme luminosity imaging conical spectrograph (ELICS). The ELICS configuration has important advantages over spectrographs that are based on cylindrically and spherically bent crystals. The main advantages are that a wide variety of large-aperture crystals can be used, and any desired magnification in the spatial direction (the direction orthogonal to spectral dispersion) can be achieved by the use of different experimental arrangements. The ELICS can be set up so that the detector plane is almost perpendicular to the incident rays, a good configuration for time-resolved spectroscopy. ELICSs with mica crystals of 45×90mm2 aperture have been successfully used for imaging on the XP and COBRA pulsed power generators, yielding spectra with spatial resolution in 2D of Z pinches and X pinches.

X-ray spectroscopy for high energy-density X pinch density and temperature measurements (invited)

X pinch plasmas produced from fine metal wires can reach near solid densities and temperatures of 1 keV or even more. Plasma conditions change on time scales as short as 5–10 ps as determined using an x-ray streak camera viewing a focusing crystal spectrograph or directly viewing the plasma through multiple filters on a single test. As a result, it is possible to determine plasma conditions from spectra with ∼10 ps time resolution. Experiments and theory are now coming together to give a consistent picture of the dynamics and kinetics of these high energy density plasmas with very high temporal and spatial precision. A set of diagnostic techniques used in experiments for spectrally, temporally, and spatially resolved measurements of X pinch plasmas is described. Results of plasma parameter determination from these measurements are presented. X ray backlighting of one x- pinch by another with ∼30 ps x-ray pulses enables the dynamics and kinetics to be correlated in time.

X-ray imaging of an X-pinch plasma with a bubble compound refractive lens

We present diagnostic images taken of an X-pinch plasma x-ray source driven by the XP pulser (100 ns, 500 kA) at Cornell University using an x-ray bubble compound refractive lens. The lens consists of a 200 μm inside diameter glass capillary that contains about 100 biconcave microlenses formed by a string of bubbles in epoxy. A precise system for lens alignment with of 3–5 arcmin accuracy is described. X-ray images of four-wire X pinches were obtained with a spatial resolution of approximately 2 μm.

The X pinch as an x-ray source for point-projection radiography

Two methods of using the X pinch as a source of X-ray radiation for the radiography of dense plasmas and other objects are presented. These methods do not use pinholes, instead taking advantage of the small source size (<1 mm, and in some cases <1 pm) and short X-ray emission duration (< 2 ns , and < 20 ps in some cases) of the X pinch radiation. Detailed measurements of the emission characteristics of X pinches made using different wire materials and in different energy ranges using a set of X-ray diagnostics with high temporal and spatial resolution are presented. Several applications of the X pinch are discussed.

X-pinch source size measurements

The X pinch plasma emits subnanosecond bursts of x-rays in the 3 - 10 keV energy range from a very small source. As such, it has been used for high-resolution point-projection imaging of small, dense, rapidly changing plasmas, as well as submillimeter thick biological samples. The very small x-ray source size of the X pinch provides high spatial coherence of the x-rays, enabling the X pinch to be used for imaging low absorption, low contrast objects with excellent spatial resolution by incorporating wave-optics effects. The reverse procedure has been used to determine the X pinch x-ray source size: well-defined micro-fabricated slits were imaged by point-projection radiography, and the detailed patterns were compared with wave-optics calculations of the expected image patterns on film as a function of x-ray source size and energy band. In addition, an x-ray streak camera was used to study the X pinch source size as a function of time. Dynamic shadow images of a boron fiber with a tungsten core and glass fiber sheathed in plastic were compared with a time-integrated radiographic image. Source sizes as small as 1.2 μm (full width at half maximum, assuming a Gaussian spatial intensity profile for the source) have been inferred.