M. David Merrill

Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology

The 4th edition of the Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology expands upon the previous 3 versions, providinga comprehensive updateon research pertaining tonew and emerging educational technologies. Chapters that are no longer pertinent have been eliminated in this edition, with most chapters being completely rewritten, expanded, and updated Additionally, new chapters pertaining to research methodologies in educational technologyhave been added due to expressed reader interest. Each chapter now contains an extensive literature review, documenting and explaining themost recent, outstanding research, including major findings and methodologies employed. TheHandbookauthorscontinue to beinternational leaders in their respective fields; thelist is cross disciplinary by designand great effortwas taken to invite authors outside of the traditionalinstructional design and technology community.

Integrative Goals for Instructional Design.

Finding considerable agreement in their previous writings regarding the singular types of learning outcomes, the authors affirm a need to identify learning goals that require an integration of multiple objectives. The occurrence of multiple objectives is frequently encountered when instruction must reach beyond the individual topic or single lesson to the module, section, or course. It is proposed that such integration of objectives be conceived in terms of the pursuit of a comprehensive purpose in which the learner is engaged, called anenterprise. Given such an integrative goal of performance resulting from instruction, the various single objectives are viewed as being integrated as constituents of anenterprise schema. Three varieties of enterprise and their associated enterprise schemas are described, designated by their goals asdenoting, manifesting, anddiscovering. It is suggested that instructional design procedures include provisions for the learning of enterprise schemas when the integration of multiple objectives is required. Such schemas are also seen as playing a facilitating role in transfer of training.

Learner Control in Computer Based Learning.

During the period 1971-1975, with National Science Foundation funding, we cooperated with MITRE Corporation in the design of the TICCIT system. From January 1976 until February 1979, again with NSF funding, we investigated learner controlled strategies with a series of experimental studies. . . . In this presentation I will attempt to briefly describe the TICCIT system and its underlying learner control design. . . .

A Task-Centered Instructional Strategy

AbstractBased on a review of instructional design models, previous papers identified first principles of instruction. These principles prescribe a cycle of instruction consisting of activation, demonstration, application, and integration. These instructional phases are best implemented in the context of real-world tasks. A Pebble-in-the-Pond approach to instructional development prescribes a task-centered, content-first instructional design procedure, which implements these first principles in the resulting instructional products. This conceptual paper elaborates the component analysis and instructional strategy phases of this instructional design model. This paper also integrates previous instructional strategy prescriptions from Component Display Theory with the content components of knowledge objects. The strategy for teaching within the context of a whole task consists of applying strategy components to these various knowledge components in a way that enables learners to see their interrelationships a...Abstract Based on a review of instructional design models, previous papers identified first principles of instruction. These principles prescribe a cycle of instruction consisting of activation, demonstration, application, and integration. These instructional phases are best implemented in the context of real-world tasks. A Pebble-in-the-Pond approach to instructional development prescribes a task-centered, content-first instructional design procedure, which implements these first principles in the resulting instructional products. This conceptual paper elaborates the component analysis and instructional strategy phases of this instructional design model. This paper also integrates previous instructional strategy prescriptions from Component Display Theory with the content components of knowledge objects. The strategy for teaching within the context of a whole task consists of applying strategy components to these various knowledge components in a way that enables learners to see their interrelationships and their relationship to the whole. The resulting instructional strategy is a guided task-centered approach as contrasted with more learner-centered problem-based approaches to instructional design. The application of this component analysis and task-centered instructional strategy is illustrated.

The Elaboration Theory of Instruction: A Model for Sequencing and Synthesizing Instruction.

This paper describes a novel instructional model for sequencing, syntheizing, and summarizing subject-matter content. The importance of such models is discussed, along with the need for a significant change in the role of subject-matter structure in instruction. A “zoom-lens” analogy is presented to facilitate an understanding of the elaboration model of instruction. Some basic concepts and principles upon which the model is based are described. The basic unvarying components of the elaboration model are described. And finally, some variations in the model for different kinds of goals are described. The elaboration model follows a general-to-detailed pattern of sequencing, as opposed to the hierarchically based sequences derived from Gagné-type task analyses.

Learner Control: Beyond Aptitude-Treatment Interactions

Cronbach and Snow (in press) have prepared an extensive review of the theoretical orientation and methodology of an aptitude-treatment interaction (ATI) approach to revision of curriculum and instructional methods, and have summarized related research. In this paper, I attempt to state briefly their theoretical position and examine some of the premises that seem to provide the basis for their argument. Following a synopsis of their views, I propose alternative premises which seem to be less limiting than those of Cronbach and Snow. This paper is not a critique of ATI research. It discusses the philosophy and premises underlying the ATI approach, not ATI procedure and methodology. I have attempted to substantiate that ATI does represent a philosophy. And I suggest an alternative theoretical methodology that follows from revised premises. In my view, the study of aptitudeEditors Note. The material in this article was prepared pursuant to a contract with the National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgment in professional and technical matters. Points of view or opinions do not necessarily represent the official view or opinions of the National Institute of Education.

The New Component Design Theory: Instructional Design for Courseware Authoring.

This paper outlines extensions of Component Display Theory to provide the type of design guidance needed for experiential computer based instructional systems. The new Component Design Theory (CDT) extends the original theory in several significant ways. Content types are extended to content structures. These content structures include experiential as well as structural representations. Primary presentation forms are extended to primary presentation functions and the display is replaced by the transaction. Various types of transactions are identified for both structural and experiential representations. Course organization, previously described as Elaboration Theory, is included as part of the new CDT. Consistency rules are extended to include: (a) goal-content representation consistency; (b) goal/content representation-transaction consistency; and (c) goal/content representation-course organization consistency. Intervention rules are included for intra-transaction guidance, inter-transaction selection and sequence (strategy), inter-content representation selection and sequence (sequence) and control (who makes the guidance, strategy and sequence decisions, the learner or the system?). Finally a set of cardinal instructional principles is identified and the sets of rules which comprise the new CDT are suggested as prescribed procedures for implementing these cardinal principles.1. The preparation of this paper was supported in part by funds provided by The Army Research Institute via Human Technology, Inc. The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsoring organization or Human Technology, Inc.2. Mark Hopkins was a powerful teacher and President of William College of Massachusetts (1836–1872). It is said that the best instructional technique ever devised was Mark Hopkins on one end of a log and a student on the other.

The Structure of Subject Matter Content and Its Instructional Design Implications.

This paper discusses the analysis of subject matter structure for purposes of designing instruction. The underlying assumption is that subject matter structures provide an important basis for deciding how to sequence and synthesize the “modules” of a subject matter area. Four types of fundamental structures are briefly described and illustrated: the learning hierarchy, the procedural hierarchy, the taxonomy, and the model. Then a theoretical framework is presented for classifying types of subject mater content — both “modules” and structures. Finally, some implications of these content classifications are discussed. The classification of “modules” is hypothesized to be valuable for prescribing strategies for the presentation of single “modules”, and the classification of structures is hypothesized to be valuable for prescribing strategies for selecting, sequencing, synthesizing, and summarizing related “modules”. The need to take into account more than one kind of structure in the process of instructional design is emphasized.

Components of instruction toward a theoretical tool for instructional design

This article defines primary knowledgecomponents for entities, actions, andprocesses. It also defines primaryinstructional strategy components. It proposesthat a different combination of strategy andknowledge components is required for differentkinds of instructional goals. It furtherproposes that if these fundamentalstrategy-knowledge component combinations arenot present that there will be a decrement inthe students effective and efficientacquisition of the desired knowledge and skill.It further proposes that the underlyingarchitecture of an instructional strategy is acombination of primary strategy components andprimary knowledge components appropriate for,and consistent with, a given instructionalgoal. Instructional components are a theoreticaltool. They are not a method or developmentprocedure. These instructional strategy andknowledge components can be imbedded in a widevariety of different instructionalarchitectures based on a variety of differentphilosophical orientations. It is hoped thatone of the primary benefits of instructionalcomponents is to provide a common vocabularythat will enable designers, theorists, andinstructional developers to more clearlydescribe their products and procedures.

Effective Peer Interaction in a Problem-Centered Instructional Strategy

This article suggests that peer interaction is most effective when orchestrated around a progression of problems. Problem‐centered learning is enhanced by carefully structured peer interactions. Problem‐centered instruction is a form of direct instruction wherein instructional components are taught in the context of problems. An effective problem‐centered instructional strategy involves (a) facilitating learners’ activation of relevant mental models, (b) demonstrating problem solutions to learners, (c) enabling learner application to the solution of new problems, and (d) facilitating integration into activities beyond the classroom by critique, discussion, and reflection. Instruction is most effective when there is appropriate peer interaction during each of these instructional phases: peer‐sharing during activation, peer‐discussion during demonstration, peer‐collaboration during application, and peer‐critique during integration.