M.E.J. Woolhouse

Foot-and-mouth disease virus infection of sheep: implications for diagnosis and control

GAILLARD, Y. & PEPIN, G. (1999) Testing hair for pharmaceuticals. Journal ofChromatography B 733, 231-246 GORODISCHER, R. & KOREN, G. (1992) Salivary excretion of drugs in children: theoretical and practical issues in therapeutic drug monitoring. Developmental Pharmacology and Therapeutics 19, 161-177 GOUELLE, J. P., NOYON, J., LAYET, A., RAPOPORT, N. F., VASCHALDE, Y., PIGNIER, Y., BOUIGE, D. & JOUEN, F. (1995) Phenobarbital in hair and drug monitoring. Forensic Science International 70, 191-202 GUNARATNAM, P. & WILKINSON, G. T. (1983) A study of normal hair growth in the dog. Journal ofSmall Animal Practice 24, 445-453 GYGI, S. P., WILKINS, D. G. & ROLLINS, D. E. (1997) A comparison of phenobarbital and codeine incorporation into pigmented and nonpigmented rat hair. Journal ofPharmacological Sciences 86, 209-214 HARKEY, M. R. (1993) The anatomy and physiology of hair. Forensic Science International 63, 9 KNOTT, C. & REYNOLDS, F. (1984) The place of saliva in antiepileptic drug monitoring. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 6, 35-41 LECOUTEUR, R. A. (1995) Seizures and epilepsy. In Manual of Small Animal Neurology. Gloucester, British Small Animal VeterinaryAssociation. pp 95-111 LIU, H. & DELGADO, M. R. (1999) Therapeutic drug concentration monitoring using saliva samples, focus on anticonvulsants. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 36, 453-470 MCAULIFFE, J. J., SHERWIN, A. L., LEPPIK, I. E., FAYLE, S. A. & PIPPENGER, C. E. (1977) Salivary levels of anticonvulsants: a practical approach to drug monitoring. Neurology 27, 409-413 MILES, M. V., TENNISON, M. B. & GREENWOOD, R. S. (1991) Intraindividual variability of carbamazepine, phenobarbital and phenytoin concentrations in saliva. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 32, 166-171 NAVAZESH, M. (1993) Methods for collecting saliva. Annals of the New York Academy ofSciences 694, 72-77 PICHINI, S., ALTIERI, I., ZUCCARO, P. & PACIFICI, R. (1996) Drug monitoring in nonconventional biological fluids and matrices. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 30, 211-228 SCHWARTZ-PORSCHE, D. (1994) Seizures. In Clinical Syndromes in Veterinary Neurology. 2nd edn. St Louis, Mosby-Year Book. pp 234-251 SKINNER, S. F., ROBERTSON, L. T., ARTERO, M. & GERDING, R. K. (1979) Longitudinal study of phenobarbital in serum, cerebrospinal fluid and saliva in the dog. American Journal of Veterinary Research 41, 600-604 TOKUGAWA, K., UEDA, K., FUJITO, H. & KUROKAWA, T. (1986) Correlation between the saliva and free serum concentration of phenobarbital in epileptic children. European Journal ofPediatrics 145, 401-402 WATANABE, J., NAKASE, Y., URASAKI, Y., HAYASHI, Y., IWAMOTO, K. & OZEKI, S. (1981) Protein binding effects of salivary excretion of phenobarbital in dogs. Journal ofPharmacobiodynamics 4, 968-977 WENNIG, R. (2000) Potential problems with the interpretation of hair analysis research. Forensic Science International 107, 5-12

Genome-wide analysis reveals the ancient and recent admixture history of East African Shorthorn Zebu from Western Kenya.

The Kenyan East African zebu cattle are valuable and widely used genetic resources. Previous studies using microsatellite loci revealed the complex history of these populations with the presence of taurine and zebu genetic backgrounds. Here, we estimate at genome-wide level the genetic composition and population structure of the East African Shorthorn Zebu (EASZ) of western Kenya. A total of 548 EASZ from 20 sub-locations were genotyped using the Illumina BovineSNP50 v. 1 beadchip. STRUCTURE analysis reveals admixture with Asian zebu, African and European taurine cattle. The EASZ were separated into three categories: substantial (⩾12.5%), moderate (1.56%<X<12.5%) and non-introgressed (⩽1.56%) according to the European taurine genetic proportion. The non-European taurine introgressed animals (n=425) show an unfluctuating zebu and taurine ancestry of 0.84±0.009 s.d. and 0.16±0.009 s.d., respectively, with significant differences in African taurine (AT) and Asian zebu backgrounds across chromosomes (P<0.0001). In contrast, no such differences are observed for the European taurine ancestry (P=0.1357). Excluding European introgressed animals, low and nonsignificant genetic differentiation and isolation by distance are observed among sub-locations (Fst=0.0033, P=0.09; r=0.155, P=0.07). Following a short population expansion, a major reduction in effective population size (Ne) is observed from approximately 240 years ago to present time. Our results support ancient zebu × AT admixture in the EASZ population, subsequently shaped by selection and/or genetic drift, followed by a more recent exotic European cattle introgression.

Epidemiology of an intestinal parasite (Spirometra spp.) in two populations of African lions (Panthera leo)

Infection with the cestode Spirometra spp. was studied in 2 populations of lions in the Serengeti and the Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania, East Africa. These 2 lion populations lived in different habitats and were known to differ genetically: lions in the Serengeti were outbred, whereas lions in the Ngorongoro Crater were inbred. Faecal samples were collected from 112 individually known lions between March 1991 and November 1992. Over 60% of lions were infected and the median intensity of infection was 975 eggs per g of faeces. The distribution of egg counts was overdispersed. There was variability through time, though this was unrelated to seasons delimited by rainfall. There were no significant differences in levels of infection between age classes; cubs less than 9 months were already heavily infected. Sex and reproductive status did not have a significant effect. However, there were significant differences in intensities of infection between the Crater and the Serengeti populations--Spirometra spp. showed a higher level of infection intensity in the Crater population--with some variation between prides within these populations. Allozyme heterozygosity scores were available for a subset of 28 lions but were unrelated to levels of Spirometra infection. It was not possible to ascribe differences in levels of parasite infection to genetic rather than ecological factors.

Bluetongue and Epizootic Haemorrhagic Disease virus in local breeds of cattle in Kenya

The presence of bluetongue virus (BTV) and Epizootic Haemorrhagic Disease virus (EHDV) in indigenous calves in western Kenya was investigated. Serum was analysed for BTV and EHDV antibodies. The population seroprevalences for BTV and EHDV for calves at 51 weeks of age were estimated to be 0.942 (95% CI 0.902–0.970) and 0.637 (95% CI 0.562–0.710), respectively, indicating high levels of circulating BTV and EHDV. The odds ratio of being positive for BTV if EHDV positive was estimated to be 2.57 (95% CI 1.37–4.76). When 99 calves were tested for BTV and EHDV RNA by real-time RT-PCR, 88.9% and 63.6% were positive, respectively. Comparison of the serology and real-time RT-PCR results revealed an unexpectedly large number of calves that were negative by serology but positive by real-time RT-PCR for EHDV. Eight samples positive for BTV RNA were serotyped using 24 serotype-specific real-time RT-PCR assays. Nine BTV serotypes were detected, indicating that the cattle were infected with a heterogeneous population of BTVs. The results show that BTV and EHDV are highly prevalent, with cattle being infected from an early age.

Coccidiosis in the European badger ( Meles meles ) from England, an epidemiological study

In total 445 faecal samples were collected from 259 European badgers (Meles meles) in Wytham Woods, Oxfordshire, UK (462080). Microscopical examination revealed infection with 2 species of coccidia Eimeria melis and Isospora melis. From the initial examination of each animal, point prevalence rates of 0.44 and 0.35 were calculated for Eimeria and Isospora respectively. The intensity of infection was significantly greater for Eimeria than Isopora and the distribution of intensities was highly skewed for both species, with a few individuals shedding the majority of oocysts. Incidence and recovery rates for both coccidia species were calculated from longitudinal data collected at 3-monthly intervals from a subset of the adult badger population, and the predicted prevalence rates based on these were similar to the point prevalence rates. This suggests little, if any, parasite-induced mortality in the adult population. In contrast, there was a marked and significant reduction in the point prevalence and intensity of infection with Eimeria from cub to adult badger suggesting a degree of acquired immunity to Eimeria melis on initial exposure and/or that there is significant Eimeria-associated mortality in the cub population. No such relationship was found for Isospora infection. In those adult badgers with co-infections there was a direct relationship between the intensity of Eimeria and Isospora. The taxonomic status of these parasites suggests a heteroxenous life-cycle for I. melis, and direct transmission of E. melis. However, the greater than expected prevalence of co-infection is consistent with a common source of infection, such as communal latrines.

A longitudinal assessment of the serological response to Theileria parva and other tick-borne parasites from birth to one year in a cohort of indigenous calves in western Kenya

SUMMARY Tick-borne diseases are a major impediment to improved productivity of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. Improved control of these diseases would be assisted by detailed epidemiological data. Here we used longitudinal, serological data to determine the patterns of exposure to Theileria parva, Theileria mutans, Babesia bigemina and Anaplasma marginale from 548 indigenous calves in western Kenya. The percentage of calves seropositive for the first three parasites declined from initial high levels due to maternal antibody until week 16, after which the percentage increased until the end of the study. In contrast, the percentage of calves seropositive for T. mutans increased from week 6 and reached a maximal level at week 16. Overall 423 (77%) calves seroconverted to T. parva, 451 (82%) to T. mutans, 195 (36%) to B. bigemina and 275 (50%) to A. marginale. Theileria parva antibody levels were sustained following infection, in contrast to those of the other three haemoparasites. Three times as many calves seroconverted to T. mutans before seroconverting to T. parva. No T. parva antibody response was detected in 25 calves that died of T. parva infection, suggesting that most deaths due to T. parva are the result of acute disease from primary exposure.

Survey of parasite infections not endemic to the United Kingdom in quarantined animals

M. E. J. Woolhouse, BA, MSc, PhD, Department of Tropical Animal Health, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG P. S. Craig, BSc, MSc, PhD, Division of Biological Sciences, Peel Building, University of Salford, Manchester M5 4WT THE Pet Travel Scheme has been welcomed by many pet owners as a means of easing the importation of pets into the UK. However, concern exists within the veterinary and medical professions regarding the potential importation of exotic parasites which are not currently established in the UK. The Kennedy report (Anon 1998) identified two additional disease risks, other than rabies, if quarantine restrictions were lifted for a controlled number of countries. These were importation of the cestode parasite Echinococcus multilocularis, the cystic stage of which causes alveolar echinococcosis in human beings, and ticks of a variety of species, such as Rhipicephalus sanguineus, the vector of Babesia canis and Ehrlichia canis. In Europe, E multilocularis has a two-host sylvatic lifecycle involving the fox as the definitive host and microtine rodents as intermediate hosts. Prevalence levels in foxes are as high as 67 per cent in the Zurich area (Hofer and others 2000) and 75 per cent in regions of south-west Germany (Romig and others 1999). Information regarding E multilocularis infection in domestic pets is limited, although prevalence levels of 0-3 to 0 4 per cent in dogs and cats in north-east Switzerland (Deplazes and others 1999), 3-7 per cent in cats in the locality of Geneva (Petavy and others 2000) and 12 per cent in rural dogs in the Canton Fribourg region of Switzerland (Eckert and Deplazes 1999) have been documented. In order to determine whether E multilocularis and exotic ticks are present in animals imported into the UK, a ninemonth survey of a sample of dogs and cats entering quarantine between January and September 2000, was performed. Quarantine premises and corresponding veterinary superintendents were approached during November 1999 and asked to participate in the survey; 54 per cent of quarantine premises agreed to do so. Two faecal samples were requested from each new quarantine entrant before routine anthelmintic treatment, together with any ectoparasites found on the body or in the bedding of the pet transport container. Information regarding the species, country of origin and date of entry into the UK was collected. The faeces were collected in specimen pots containing 5 per cent v/v formol saline and 70 per cent ethanol as preservatives and posted to the University of Edinburgh, together with any ectoparasites collected and preserved in formalin, in UN Class 6-2 approved transport containers.

Seroprevalence of respiratory viral pathogens of indigenous calves in Western Kenya

Most studies of infectious diseases in East African cattle have concentrated on gastro-intestinal parasites and vector-borne diseases. As a result, relatively little is known about viral diseases, except for those that are clinically symptomatic or which affect international trade such as foot and mouth disease, bluetongue and epizootic haemorrhagic disease. Here, we investigate the seroprevalence, distribution and relationship between the viruses involved in respiratory disease, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBR), bovine parainfluenza virus Type 3 (PIV3) and bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) in East African Shorthorn Zebu calves. These viruses contribute to the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRD) which is responsible for major economic losses in cattle from intensive farming systems as a result of pneumonia. We found that calves experience similar risks of infection for IBR, PIV3, and BVDV with a seroprevalence of 20.9%, 20.1% and 19.8% respectively. We confirm that positive associations exist between IBR, PIV3 and BVDV; being seropositive for any one of these three viruses means that an individual is more likely to be seropositive for the other two viruses than expected by chance.

Variation and covariation in strongyle infection in East African shorthorn zebu calves

Summary Parasite burden varies widely between individuals within a population, and can covary with multiple aspects of individual phenotype. Here we investigate the sources of variation in faecal strongyle eggs counts, and its association with body weight and a suite of haematological measures, in a cohort of indigenous zebu calves in Western Kenya, using relatedness matrices reconstructed from single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotypes. Strongyle egg count was heritable (h2 = 23·9%, s.e. = 11·8%) and we also found heritability of white blood cell counts (WBC) (h2 = 27·6%, s.e. = 10·6%). All the traits investigated showed negative phenotypic covariances with strongyle egg count throughout the first year: high worm counts were associated with low values of WBC, red blood cell count, total serum protein and absolute eosinophil count. Furthermore, calf body weight at 1 week old was a significant predictor of strongyle EPG at 16–51 weeks, with smaller calves having a higher strongyle egg count later in life. Our results indicate a genetic basis to strongyle EPG in this population, and also reveal consistently strong negative associations between strongyle infection and other important aspects of the multivariate phenotype.