M.M. Sarin

Major ion chemistry of the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system: Weathering processes and fluxes to the Bay of Bengal

The Ganga-Brahmaputra, one of the worlds largest river systems, is first in terms of sediment transport and fourth in terms of water discharge. A detailed and systematic study of the major ion chemistry of these rivers and their tributaries, as well as the clay mineral composition of the bed sediments has been conducted. The chemistry of the highland rivers (upper reaches of the Ganga, the Yamuna, the Brahmaputra, the Gandak and the Ghaghra) are all dominated by carbonate weathering; (Ca + Mg) and HCO3 account for about 80% of the cations and anions. In the lowland rivers (the Chambal, the Betwa and the Ken), HCO3 excess over (Ca + Mg) and a relatively high contribution of (Na + K) to the total cations indicate that silicate weathering and/or contributions from alkaline/saline soils and groundwaters could be important sources of major ions to these waters. The chemistry of the Ganga and the Yamuna in the lower reaches is by and large dictated by the chemistry of their tributaries and their mixing proportions. n nIllite is the dominant clay mineral (about 80%) in the bedload sediments of the highland rivers. Kaolinite and chlorite together constitute the remaining 20% of the clays. In the Chambal, Betwa and Ken, smectite accounts for about 80% of the clays. This difference in the clay mineral composition of the bed sediments is a reflection of the differences in the geology of their drainage basins. The highland rivers weather acidic rocks, whereas the others flow initially through basic effusives. n nThe Ganga-Brahmaputra river system transports about 130 million tons of dissolved salts to the Bay of Bengal, which is nearly 3% of the global river flux to the oceans. The chemical denudation rates for the Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins are about 72 and 105 tons· km−· yr−1, respectively, which are factors of 2 to 3 higher than the global average. The high denudation rate, particularly in the Brahmaputra, is attributable to high relief and heavy rainfall.

Strontium isotopes and rubidium in the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system: Weathering in the Himalaya, fluxes to the Bay of Bengal and contributions to the evolution of oceanic87Sr/86Sr

The concentrations of Rb and Sr and87Sr/86Sr isotopic ratios have been measured in the dissolved load of the Ganga-Brahmaputra (G-B) river system. The Ganga was sampled extensively from its source at Gangotri (in the Higher Himalaya) to Patna (on the alluvial plains). The Brahmaputra was sampled in its stretch in Assam, in India. The average Sr concentration in the Ganga (at Patna) is 1.2 μmol/l and that in the Brahmaputra (at Goalpara) is 0.73 μmol/l; the mean87Sr/86Sr ratios are 0.7239 and 0.7192, respectively. The87Sr/86Sr in the Ganga source waters (the Alaknanda, the Bhagirathi and their tributaries) range between 0.7300 and 0.7986, considerably higher than the global average runoff value of 0.7119. The high87Sr/86Sr in the Ganga source waters result from the intense weathering of Precambrian granites and gneisses enriched in radiogenic Sr. The Sr isotope systematics of the Ganga waters is dominated by silicate weathering, whereas carbonate weathering plays a significant role in their major ion chemistry. n nThe G-B system transports about 910 million moles of dissolved Sr annually to the Bay of Bengal, with an average87Sr/86Sr of 0.7213. The Sr transported by the G-B system is about 2.7% of the global dissolved Sr flux to the oceans via rivers. Model calculations reveal that the G-B system has contributed significantly to the Sr isotope evolution of seawater during the past ∼ 20 Ma. n nThe flux of Rb through the G-B system is ∼ 24 million moles per year. This is about 5% of the global river supply of Rb to the oceans, nearly twice the contribution of water via the G-B system to the oceans. Our study suggests that the marine geochemistries of Sr and Rb (and possibly U) may have been influenced considerably by the Himalayan orogeny.

Chemistry of uranium, thorium, and radium isotopes in the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system: Weathering processes and fluxes to the Bay of Bengal

Abstract The most comprehensive data set on uranium, thorium, and radium isotopes in the Ganga-Brahmaputra, one of the major river systems of the world, is reported here. The dissolved 238U concentration in these river waters ranges between 0.44 and 8.32 μ/1, and it exhibits a positive correlation with major cations (Na + K + Mg + Ca). The 238 U ∑Cations ratio in waters is very similar to that measured in the suspended sediments, indicating congruent weathering of uranium and major cations. The regional variations observed in the [ 234 U 238 U ] activity ratio are consistent with the lithology of the drainage basins. The lowland tributaries (Chambal, Betwa, Ken, and Son), draining through the igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Deccan Traps and the Vindhyan-Bundelkhand Plateau, have [ 234 U 238 U ] ratio in the range 1.16 to 1.84. This range is significantly higher than the near equilibrium ratio (~1.05) observed in the highland rivers which drain through sedimentary terrains. The dissolved 226Ra concentration ranges between 0.03 and 0.22 dpm/1. The striking feature of the radium isotopes data is the distinct difference in the 228Ra and 226Ra abundances between the highland and lowland rivers. The lowland waters are enriched in 228Ra while the highland waters contain more 226Ra. This difference mainly results from the differences in their weathering regimes. The discharge-weighted mean concentration of dissolved 238U in the Ganga (at Patna) and in the Brahmaputra (at Goalpara) are 1.81 and 0.63 μ/1, respectively. The Ganga-Brahmaputra river system constitutes the major source of dissolved uranium to the Bay of Bengal. These rivers transport annually about 1000 tons of uranium to their estuaries, about 10% of the estimated global supply of dissolved uranium to the oceans via rivers. The transport of uranium by these rivers far exceeds that of the Amazon, although their water discharge is only about 20% of that of the Amazon. The high intensity of weathering of uranium in the Ganga-Brahmapura River system can also be deduced from the [ 232 Th 238 U ] and [ 230 Th 238 U ] activity ratios measured in the suspended sediments. 230Th is enriched by about 19% in the suspended sediments relative to its parent 238U. The flux of excess 230Th supplied to the Bay of Bengal via these river sediments is 980 × 1012 dpm/a, about six times more than its in situ production from seawater in the entire Bay of Bengal.

Geochemical evidence for anoxic deep water in the Arabian sea during the last glaciation

Various paleoceanographic studies have indicated that the deep ocean was probably depleted in dissolved oxygen during the last glacial period ([approximately]18 kyr B.P.; [delta][sup 18]O, stage 2) compared to present time. However, direct evidence of low oxygen content in the deep waters has been lacking. Here, the authors report geochemical evidence of near anoxic conditions in the deep Arabian Sea during the entire last glacial cycle ([delta][sup 18]O; stages 2, 3, and 4). Anoxia is inferred from the concomitant enrichment of organic carbon and authigenic uranium in the glacial sections of a core from the deep eastern Arabian Sea. The anoxic conditions during the last glacial period, probably caused by a change in deep water circulation, evidently enhanced preservation of organic matter and simultaneous removal of uranium from seawater. 57 refs., 3 figs., 2 tabs.

Major ion chemistry of the Ganga source waters: Weathering in the high altitude Himalaya

A systematic study of the major ion chemistry of the Ganga source waters—the Bhagirathi, Alaknanda and their tributaries—has been carried out to assess the chemical weathering processes in the high altitude Himalaya. Among major ions, Ca, Mg, HCO3 and SO4 are the most abundant in these river waters. These results suggest that weathering of carbonate rocks by carbonic and sulphuric acids dominates in these drainage basins. On an average, silicate weathering can contribute up to ∼ 30% of the total cations.The concentration of total dissolved salts in the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda is 104 and 115mg/l, respectively. The chemical denudation rate in the drainage basins of the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda is, respectively, 110 and 137 tons/km2/yr, significantly higher than that derived for the entire Ganga basin, indicating intense chemical erosion of the Himalaya.

Chemical and radiochemical investigations of surface and deep particles of the Indian Ocean

Abstract The distribution of “ash” (the non-combustible fraction of marine suspended matter) and concentrations of particulate Al, Ca, Fe, Cr, Ni, Cu, Sr and234Th in surface waters and of210Pb,230Th and234Th in two vertical profiles (385–4400 m) of the Indian Ocean are reported. The ash concentrations in surface waters follow the primary productivity pattern, with higher abundances in samples south of 40°S and lower concentrations in the equatorial and subtropical regions. Opaline silica and CaCO3 are the dominant components of the ash in samples from >40°S and from 7°N to 39°S, respectively. Aluminosilicates are only a minor constituent of the surface particulate matter. The metal/Al ratios in the surface particles are significantly higher compared to their corresponding crustal ratios for all the metals analyzed in this work. Comparison of enrichment factors between marine aerosols, plankton and surface oceanic particles, seem to indicate that this high metal/Al ratio in surface particles most likely arises from their involvement in marine biogeochemical cycles. Particulate234Th activity in surface waters parallels the ash abundance implying that its scavenging efficiency from surface waters depends on the particulate concentration. The particulate230Th and210Pb concentration profiles increase monotonously with depth. It is difficult to ascribe this increase to a process other than the in-situ vertical scavenging of230Th and210Pb from the water column by settling particles. The mean settling velocities of particles calculated from the particulate230Th data using a one-dimensional settling model is about 2 × 10−3 cm/s. The settling velocity computed from the particulate230Th profiles does not appear to be compatible with the particulate210Pb depth profiles; one possible explanation to account for the disparity would be that230Th and210Pb are scavenged by different size populations of particles. On the whole, the geographic distribution of particulate matter, their composition and settling velocities in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans are similar indicating that they are controlled by quite similar processes in the marine hydrosphere.

Recent sedimentary records from the Arabian sea

An attempt is made to understand the redox conditions that prevailed in the north eastern continental margins of the Arabian Sea and in the nearby deep water regions during the past few centuries using short undisturbed sediment cores. The geochronology is accomplished using210Pb excess method and the proxy indicators chosen for productivity and associated redox changes are CaCO3, organic matter (OM), Mn and U along with major elements Fe and Al. Such changes in principle are related to high productivity in the overlying waters which in turn depend on monsoonal intensity that causes upwelling responsible for increase in productivity. Alongwith the published data on gravity cores from the same region, our measurements suggest the following:At ∼ 300 m water depth, south of 21°N, the sediment-water interface at depths of ∼ 300 m had been anoxic during the time span represented by the presently studied cores for approximately ∼ 700y as evidenced by low Mn/Al (< 0.7 × 10−2) and high U/Al (> 10−4) weight ratios. In some adjacent deeper regions, however, the environment turned oxic around ∼ 200 y BP. Whereas both Mn and Ra were lost to the overlying waters in the anoxic regions (depth ∼340m), the Mn that diffused from deeper sections appears to have mineralized at the sediment-water-interface. Studies of this type on long undisturbed cores from the margins of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, involving several proxies and geochronology by more than one method are needed to understand short term environmental (and monsoonal intensity) changes of the recent past with high resolution.

Denitrification in the eastern Arabian Sea: Evaluation of the role of continental margins using Ra isotopes

Abstract The 228 Ra 226 Ra activity ratios (henceforth denoted as [ 228 226 ] have been measured both at the surface and at 300 m depth as a function of distance from the Western Continental margins of India to the open Arabian Sea (between 15°N and 21°N). A two-dimensional eddy diffusion model is used to fit the measured [ 228 226 ] profiles to deduce horizontal eddy diffusivities in both zonal (towards open ocean) and meridional (towards the equator) directions. These range between 1.3 × 106 and 3.1 × 106 cm2 s−1. Assuming that the organic-rich and deeply anoxic continental margin sediments at 300 m depth can be a source of organic C to the core of the denitrification layer and that the deficit flux in the carbon budget can be covered by this supply, the required gradient dC/dZ in DOC content of waters from coast to open Arabian Sea is computed using the Kx value. The required gradient is computed to be 4 μmol dm−3 100 km−1, which is within the error associated with DOC measurements.

Natural radionuclides in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal: Distribution and evaluation of particle scavenging processes

Vertical and temporal variations in the activities of234Th,210Po and210Pb have been measured, in both dissolved and paniculate phases, at several stations in the eastern Arabian Sea and north-central Bay of Bengal. A comparative study allows us to make inferences about the particle associated scavenging processes in these two seas having distinct biogeochemical properties.A common feature of the234Th profiles, in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, is that the dissolved as well as total (dissolved + particulate) activity of234Th is deficient in the surface 200 m with respect to its parent,238U. This gross deficiency is attributed to the preferential removal of234Th by adsorption onto settling particles which account for its net loss from the surface waters. The scavenging rates of dissolved234Th are comparable in these two basins. The temporal variations in the234Th-238U disequilibrium are significantly pronounced both in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal indicating that the scavenging rates are more influenced by the increased abundance of particles rather than their chemical make-up. In the mixed layer (0–50 m), the scavenging residence time of234Th ranges from 30 to 100 days.The surface and deep waters of both the seas show an enhanced deficiency of dissolved210Po relative to210Pb and that of210Pb relative to226Ra. The deficiencies of both210Po and210Pb in the dissolved phases are not balanced by their abundance in the particulate form indicating a net loss of both these nuclides from the water column. The scavenging rates of210Po and210Pb are significantly enhanced in the Bay of Bengal compared to those in the Arabian Sea. The mean dissolved210Po/210Pb and210Pb/226Ra activity ratios in deep waters of the Bay of Bengal are ∼ 0.7 and 0.1, respectively, representing some of the most pronounced disequilibria observed to date in the deep sea. The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea appear to be the regions of most intense particle moderated scavenging processes in the world oceans. This is evidenced by the gross disequilibria exhibited by the three isotope pairs used in this study.

Trace element and isotopic studies of Permo-Carboniferous carbonate nodules from Talchir sediments of peninsular India: Environmental and provenance implications

Syngenetic carbonate nodules constitute an interesting feature of the glaciogene sediments of various Talchir basins in peninsular India. Petrographic, cathodoluminescence and sedimentary results suggest that many of these nodules contain primary carbonate precipitates whose geochemical signatures can be used for determining environment of deposition and provenance of the sediments and drainage source. Several nodules were collected from Gondwana basins of east-central India and analyzed for stable carbon and oxygen isotope ratios, REE and trace element composition, and Sr isotope ratio. The mean δ18O and δ13C values of the calcites in the nodules are — 19.5% and-9.7% (w.r.t. PDB) respectively suggesting a freshwater environment (probably lacustrine) for formation of these objects. Trace element ratios (Eu/Eu * and La/Yb) of the nodule samples show that the source of the sediments in the Damodar valley basin was the granites, gneisses and intrusives in the Chotanagpur region. The sediments in the Mahanadi valley were derived from granulites, charnockites and granites of the eastern ghat region. The Sr concentration of the carbonate phase of the nodules is low, ranging from 10–60 ng/g. The87Sr/86Sr ratios of the samples from the west Bokaro basin and Ramgarh basin vary from 0.735 to 0.748 (mean: 0.739) and from 0.726 to 0.733 (mean: 0.730) respectively. These values are consistent with our proposition that water of these basins drained through the granitic rocks of the Chotanagpur region. In contrast, the87Sr/86Sr ratios of the samples from the Talchir basin (Type area) of Mahanadi valley vary from 0.718 to 0.723 (mean: 0.719). These87Sr/86Sr ratios are close to those of the granulites in the adjoining eastern ghat belt suggesting that area as the drainage source.