M. Ray Denny

Relaxation Theory and Experiments

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses relaxation theory and presents some experiments. The theoretical background for analyzing escape-avoidance behavior in terms of relaxation has been called elicitation theory or elicitation hypothesis. By and large, this approach is a comprehensive theory of behavior that borrows heavily from Hull, Guthrie, Tolman, and Skinner and represents an attempt to integrate these neo-behavioristic schools. On the contemporary scene, there are certain similarities between this theory and Premacks. In regard to learning, the theory is a monistic, contiguity position that emphasizes that a particular response must occur consistently and to the relative exclusion of other responses to be learned. Many variables that help mediate learning are those that commonly minimize or eliminate competing responses. The theory avoids positing hypothetical concepts or intervening variables, and it depends upon a continual, detailed analysis of stimulus and response for the explanation and prediction of behavior. The chapter presents the abstract concepts of stimulus, response class, and the relationship between them.

A theory of intelligence: I. span and the complexity of stimulus control

Abstract A theory of intelligence is couched in stimulus-response terms, bridging the gap between S-R and cognitive psychology. The chief theoretical concepts are span ability (a capacity notion), response string (sequentially cued responses), and complexity of stimulus control (task complexity). Span is equated with the ability to respond appropriately when several cues are conjunctively relevant for correct performance (complex stimulus control). So defined, span is consistently and broadly related to many aspects of intelligent behavior.

A theory of intelligence: II. The role of span in a variety of intellectual tasks.

Abstract This paper is the sequel to Part I in which a theory of intelligence was developed in terms of the concepts of span ability and complex stimulus control. A broad range of topics is discussed including discrimination learning, language, language development, reading, the relation between intelligence and learning, task analysis and the training of the mentally retarded, the role of span in IQ subtests, and suggestions for research. The paper includes summaries of previously unpublished research by the first author as well as published work by other investigators.

Zinc deficiency and behavior: A developmental perspective

Abstract Zinc deficiency was induced in 35 and 300 day-old male Holtzman rats. Group ZDA was fed ad lib a diet deficient in zinc (1 ppm), ZSP controls were pair-fed a diet supplemented with zinc (50 ppm) and ZSA controls were fed ad lib a diet supplemented with zinc (50 ppm). Physical status and six open-field behaviors were evaluated. Food intake, body weight and plasma zinc concentrations were significantly reduced in both age groups. Expanded use of the open-field revealed significantly lower latencies to explore the novel environment and significantly lower ambulation scores in the young and older zinc deficient rats. Older rats spent significantly less time grooming than their controls. Rearing was significantly less in young zinc deficient rats and “kangaroo-like” posture was evident. Young rats made deficient during critical periods of growth and development, were at greater risk for most parameters tested, compared to the older deficient rats. These results do demonstrate, however, that feeding low-zinc diets to older, fully developed animals results in significant physical and behavioral impairment.

A Theoretical Analysis and Its Application to Training the Mentally Retarded

Publisher Summary This chapter presents a theory and attempts to apply its principles to the problem of training people who are mentally retarded. The chapter discusses the deficits and processes peculiar to the retardate. The chapter focuses on the techniques that have been used for educating or training the retarded. The general theory discussed in the chapter avoids the use of hypothetical concepts or intervening variables and depends on a continual, detailed analysis of stimulus and response for the explanation and prediction of behavior. The main abstract concepts employed are stimulus (S) and response (R) and the relationship between them—that is, response tendency (S–R). The chapter discusses the variables that facilitate the establishment or strengthening of a relatively permanent response tendency.

Serial position effect as a function of intertrial interval

Summary A discrimination theory, stating that serial position effects are dependent upon the ITI for providing a discriminable order cue, was tested by the following experimental conditions: (1) where the ITI was eliminated by equating it with the ISI, (2) where the ITI was eliminated and the beginning of the list was disguised, and (3) where the ITIs location was varied. These groups were compared with a control condition (traditional serial presentation). All experimental conditions significantly reduced primacy-recency effects and retarded rate of acquisition. Experimental Ss typically utilized their own discriminable item for establishing an idiosyncratic serial position curve.

Post-aversive relief and relaxation and their implications for behavior therapy☆

Abstract This paper attempted to (a) introduce the notions of relief and relaxation as they relate to the framework of elicitation theory; (b) emphasize and exploit that aspect of the theory that deals with the extinction of learned behavior, especially behavior that is in some way mediated by aversive stimuli; and (c) show how the data and theory probably relate to: (1) high resistance to extinction of some fears and avoidance responses, (2) generalized anxiety and its treatment, (3) implosive therapy or flooding, and (4) relief therapy.

Avoidance Learning and Relearning as a Function of Shuttlebox Dimensions

Rats in a low-ceiling shuttlebox initially show a lower level of learning than rats in a high-ceiling box. After an hours interruption of conditioning the performance of animals in low-ceiling boxes improves and avoidance is slightly more efficient than in the unimproved performance of animals in high-ceiling boxes. Box height also interacts significantly with length of box.

A Learning Model

I am not going to talk about several different models, although others will be referred to as I discuss the model I am most interested in. This particular model has been called elicitation theory, and it originated at Michigan State University in the early 1950’s. At that time it was an attempt to integrate the neobehavioristic theories of Hull, Guthrie, Skinner, and Tolman, plus the older ideas of Pavlov (Denny, 1966; Denny and Adelman, 1955).

Emotionality of pictures and the retention of related and unrelated phrases

College students were exposed once to a sequence of 12 picture-phrase combinations varying along two dimensions: emotionality of the picture and relatedness of the phrase to the picture. Retention of both pictures and phrases was tested after 24 h. Emotional materials were recalled better than nonemotional; enhancement was greatest for pictures and greater for phrases related to pictures than for unrelated phrases. Relatedness was important for phrases, but not for pictures, suggesting that pictures cue verbal recall, but not vice versa. An extension of the encoding variability hypothesis was supported.