M. Soledade C. Pedras

The sirodesmin biosynthetic gene cluster of the plant pathogenic fungus Leptosphaeria maculans

Sirodesmin PL is a phytotoxin produced by the fungus Leptosphaeria maculans, which causes blackleg disease of canola (Brassica napus). This phytotoxin belongs to the epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) class of toxins produced by fungi including mammalian and plant pathogens. We report the cloning of a cluster of genes with predicted roles in the biosynthesis of sirodesmin PL and show via gene disruption that one of these genes (encoding a two‐module non‐ribosomal peptide synthetase) is essential for sirodesmin PL biosynthesis. Of the nine genes in the cluster tested, all are co‐regulated with the production of sirodesmin PL in culture. A similar cluster is present in the genome of the opportunistic human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus and is most likely responsible for the production of gliotoxin, which is also an ETP. Homologues of the genes in the cluster were also identified in expressed sequence tags of the ETP producing fungus Chaetomium globosum. Two other fungi with publicly available genome sequences, Magnaporthe grisea and Fusarium graminearum, had similar gene clusters. A comparative analysis of all four clusters is presented. This is the first report of the genes responsible for the biosynthesis of an ETP.

Probing the phytopathogenic stem rot fungus with phytoalexins and analogues: unprecedented glucosylation of camalexin and 6-methoxycamalexin

The remarkable metabolism of the cruciferous phytoalexins camalexin and 6-methoxycamalexin by the stem rot phytopathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is reported. The biotransformations yielded camalexins glucosylated at N-1 or C-6 of the indole ring, with substantially lower antifungal activity than camalexins. A camalexin analogue with the positions N-1 and C-6 blocked was metabolized but at a much slower rate than the natural phytoalexins. The chemistry involved in the metabolism of natural camalexins and two new analogues, as well as their novel metabolites and respective antifungal activities is described.

Structure, chemistry, and biological activity of pseudophomins A and B, new cyclic lipodepsipeptides isolated from the biocontrol bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens

Pseudophomins A and B are cyclic lipodepsipeptides isolated from Pseudomonas fluorescens strain BRG100, a bacterium with potential application for biocontrol of plant pathogens and weeds. Their chemical structures were established by a combination of spectroscopic data, X-ray crystallography, and selective chemical degradation. This unique chemical degradation allowed the unambiguous determination of the absolute configuration of the amino acid residue Leu-1, due to gamma-lactam formation followed by selective cleavage of the adjacent N(8)-C(7) bond. To the best of our knowledge this is the first application of gamma-lactam formation to the determination of absolute configuration of an adjacent amino acid. Pseudophomin B showed higher antifungal activity against the phytopathogens Phoma lingam/Leptosphaeria maculans and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum than pseudophomin A, and is likely to be the main component responsible for the antifungal activity of EtOAc extracts of strain BRG100. By contrast, pseudophomin A showed stronger inhibition of green foxtail (Setaria viridis) root germination than pseudophomin B.

Phytotoxin Production and Phytoalexin Elicitation by the Phytopathogenic Fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

The fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary causes rot disease in a vast range of plant families, including Cruciferae (Brassicaceae). We investigated the production of phytotoxins by S. sclerotiorum by using a bioassay-guided isolation, as well as the phytoalexins produced by the resistant wild crucifer Erucastrum gallicum under elicitation by S. sclerotiorum and other agents. We established for the first time that S. sclerotiorum produces a somewhat selective phytotoxin, sclerin, which is phytotoxic to three cruciferous species (Brassica napus, B. juncea, and Sinapis alba) susceptible to Sclerotinia stem rot disease, causing severe necrosis and chlorosis, but not to a resistant species (Erucastrum gallicum). In addition, we have shown that oleic acid, the major fatty acid isolated from sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum is responsible for the toxic activity of extracts of sclerotia to brine shrimp larvae (Artemia salina). Phytoalexin elicitation in leaves of E. gallicum led to the isolation of three known phytoalexins: indole-3-acetonitrile, arvelexin, and 1-methoxyspirobrassinin. Considering that resistance of E. gallicum to S. sclerotiorum is potentially transferable to B. rapa, a susceptible canola species, and that arvelexin, and 1-methoxyspirobrassinin are not produced by B. rapa, these phytoalexins may become useful markers for resistance against S. sclerotiorum.

The phytoalexin camalexin is not metabolized by Phoma lingam, Alternaria brassicae, or phytopathogenic bacteria

Abstract The metabolism of the cruciferous phytoalexin camalexin by the blackleg (Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm.) Ces. et de Not., asexual stage Phoma lingam (Tode ex Fr.) Desm), and blackspot (Alternaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc.) fungi, as well as the phytopathogenic bacteria Pseudomonas syringae, P. cichorii, Erwinia carotovora, and Xanthomonas campestris was evaluated. The micro-organisms were incubated with camalexin for different time periods and the cultures were extracted and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography and proton nuclear magnetic resonance. The results of these analyses indicated that camalexin was not metabolized by any of the micro-organisms. Importantly, camalexin appeared to inhibit the production of the phytotoxin destruxin B by A. brassicae, but did not affect the phytotoxins produced by P. lingam. Furthermore, the growth of bacteria and fungi was inhibited almost completely in the presence of camalexin at concentrations ≥0.40 mM.

Wasalexins A and B, new phytoalexins from wasabi : Isolation, synthesis, and antifungal activity

The chemical structure determination of two phytoalexins from wasabi (Wasabia japonica, syn. Eutrema wasabi), a plant resistant to virulent isolates of the blackleg fungus [Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm.) Ces. et de Not., asexual stage Phoma lingam (Tode ex Fr.) Desm.], as well as their synthesis and antifungal activity towards isolates of P. lingam and P. wasabiae is reported.

Phytoalexin accumulation and antifungal compounds from the crucifer Wasabi

Abstract The constitutive antifungal metabolites produced by wasabi ( Wasabia japonica , syn. Eutrema wasabi ), a plant resistant to virulent isolates of the blackleg fungus [ Leptosphaeria maculans (Desm.) Ces. et de Not., asexual stage Phoma lingam (Tode ex Fr.) Desm.] were isolated and their chemical structures determined. In addition, the chemical structure and synthesis of the first wasabi phytoalexin, methyl 1-methoxyindole-3-carboxylate, as well as its antifungal activity towards isolates of P. lingam and P. wasabiae were established.

Sinalbins A and B, phytoalexins from Sinapis alba: elicitation, isolation, and synthesis.

The chemical structure and synthesis of sinalbin A is described. This cruciferous phytoalexin is produced by white mustard (Sinapis alba) after treatment with biotic and abiotic elicitors. In addition, a related metabolite, named sinalbin B, is present in extracts from elicited plants, but not in those from non-elicited controls. Sinalbin B, which was also synthesized, appears to be both a phytoalexin and a biosynthetic precursor of sinalbin A.

Cloning, purification and characterisation of brassinin glucosyltransferase, a phytoalexin-detoxifying enzyme from the plant pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

The plant-pathogenic fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum can detoxify cruciferous phytoalexins such as brassinin via glucosylation. Here we describe a multifaceted approach including genome mining, transcriptional induction, phytoalexin quantification, protein expression and enzyme purification that led to identification of a S. sclerotiorum glucosyltransferase that detoxifies brassinin. Transcription of this gene, denoted as brassinin glucosyltransferase 1 (SsBGT1), was induced significantly in response to the cruciferous phytoalexins camalexin, cyclobrassinin, brassilexin, brassinin and 3-phenylindole, a camalexin analogue. This gene was also up-regulated during infection of Brassica napus leaves. Levels of brassinin decreased significantly between 48 and 72h post-inoculation, with a concomitant increase in levels of 1-beta-d-glucopyranosylbrassinin, the product of the reaction catalysed by SsBGT1. These findings strongly implicate the involvement of this gene during infection of B. napus. This gene was cloned and expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The purified recombinant enzyme was able to glucosylate brassinin and two other phytoalexins, albeit much less effectively. This is the first report of a fungal gene involved in detoxification of plant defence molecules via glucosylation.

Phytoalexins from Brassicaceae: news from the front.

The chemical structures, syntheses, metabolism and biological activities of the cruciferous phytoalexins discovered to date, with particular focus on the latest results dealing with their biosynthesis and detoxification are reviewed.