M.V. Lee Badgett

The Wage Effects of Sexual Orientation Discrimination

This study is the first to apply the econometric tools developed in the study of race and gender discrimination to the newer question of sexual orientation discrimination. Analyzing pooled 1989–91 data from a national random sample, the General Social Survey, the author finds that gay and bisexual male workers earned from 11% to 27% less than heterosexual male workers with the same experience, education, occupation, marital status, and region of residence. There is also evidence that lesbian and bisexual women earned less than heterosexual women, but this result is not consistently statistically significant across all variable definitions and specifications.

Money, Myths and Change. The economic lives of lesbians and gay men

This work explores the economic lives of gays and lesbians in the United States. It debunks common stereotypical ideas about gay privilege, income and consumer behaviour. By studying the ends and means of gay life from an economic perspective, the author disproves the assumption that gay men and lesbians are more affluent than heterosexuals, that they inspire discrimination when coming out of the closet, that they consume more conspicuously, and that they lead a more hedonistic lifestyle. Badgett analyzes crucial issues that affect the livelihood of gay men and lesbians: discrimination in the workplace, denial of healthcare benefits to domestic partners and children, lack of access to legal institutions, such as marriage, the corporate wooing of gay consumer dollars and the use of gay economic clout to inspire social and political change.

When Gay People Get Married: What Happens When Societies Legalize Same-Sex Marriage

Acknowledgments 1 Introduction: A Different Perspective 2 Why Marry? The Value of Marriage 3 Forsaking All Other Options 4 The Impact of Gay Marriage on Heterosexuals 5 Something Borrowed: Trying Marriage On 6 Something New: Will Marriage Change Gay People? 7 Marriage Dissent in the Gay Community 8 Strange Bedfellows: Assessing Alternatives to Marriage 9 The Pace of Change: Are We Moving Too Fast? 10 Conclusion: Marriage Under Renovation? Appendix 1: Constructing Measures and Making Comparisons Appendix 2: Methods Involved in the Dutch Couples Study Notes Index About the Author

Same-Sex Legal Marriage and Psychological Well-Being: Findings From the California Health Interview Survey

OBJECTIVES We examined whether same-sex marriage was associated with nonspecific psychological distress among self-identified lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults, and whether it had the potential to offset mental health disparities between lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons and heterosexuals. METHODS Population-based data (weighted) were from the 2009 adult (aged 18-70 years) California Health Interview Survey. Within-group analysis of lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons included 1166 individuals (weighted proportion = 3.15%); within-group heterosexual analysis included 35 608 individuals (weighted proportion = 96.58%); and pooled analysis of lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons and heterosexuals included 36 774 individuals. RESULTS Same-sex married lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons were significantly less distressed than lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons not in a legally recognized relationship; married heterosexuals were significantly less distressed than nonmarried heterosexuals. In adjusted pairwise comparisons, married heterosexuals had the lowest psychological distress, and lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons who were not in legalized relationships had the highest psychological distress (P < .001). Psychological distress was not significantly distinguishable among same-sex married lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons, lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons in registered domestic partnerships, and heterosexuals. CONCLUSIONS Being in a legally recognized same-sex relationship, marriage in particular, appeared to diminish mental health differentials between heterosexuals and lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons. Researchers must continue to examine potential health benefits of same-sex marriage, which is at least in part a public health issue.

Patterns of Relationship Recognition by Same-Sex Couples in the United States

Since 1997, 19 states and the District of Columbia have extended legal recognition to the relationships of same-sex couples. The form of legal recognition has varied to include marriage, civil unions, state-registered domestic partnerships, and limited-rights statuses, such as reciprocal beneficiary relationships. These varied forms of recognition entail different packages of legal rights and responsibilities for the couples entering them. This study provides a demographic analysis of the same-sex couples who marry, enter civil unions, or register their partnership in these states, covering the full range of legal statuses.

Job Gendering: Occupational Choice and the Marriage Market

Existing theories of occupational segregation appeal to family-related responsibilities, employer discrimination, and socialization to explain why women and men occupy such different jobs. We suggest that occupational segregation is perpetuated because women (and men) may be penalized in the marriage market for making nontraditional occupational choices. As an empirical test, we asked students to rate personal ad-like vignettes. Holding all else equal, having a gender-nonconforming occupation reduced the attractiveness of both men and women.

Gender, sexuality, and sexual orientation: All in the feminist family?

This essay argues that a focus on gender alone is inadequate for the development of the economics of sexuality because of important differences between “gender” and “sexuality” as analytical categories. Examples of gender-based models of the family reveal the limitations of applying those models to the families of lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals, since gay families face very different legal, political, and cultural constraints and opportunities. However, variations in family forms and behavior that are rooted in sexual orientation differences provide opportunities for new feminist research strategies for studying the influence of gender norms and family legal institutions on economic behavior, for instance. And finally, feminists can also learn from and contribute to the political efforts of lesbian and gay activists who are creating new forms of legally and materially recognized relationships between adults.

Rising black unemployment: Changes in job stability or in employability?

This article analyzes the effects of changes in flows into and out of unemployment on the growing gap between black and white unemployment rates in the 1970s and 1980s. Current Population Survey data show that black workers’ unemployment inflows increased, suggesting that job instability increased. Declining employment opportunities were also implicated, as black workers left unemployment for a job less often in 1987 than in 1971. White women’s situation improved considerably, with lower inflows and higher employment probabilities. Although the effects of declining federal equal employment opportunity (EEO) pressure cannot be detected, these findings are consistent with increasing racial discrimination.

Explorations - Introduction: Towards Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Perspectives in Economics: Why and How They May Make a Difference

The economics profession has only recently begun to include research on lesbians and gay men, but we argue that a lesbian economics has long existed, with documentation of anti-lesbian discrimination, discussion of its private and social costs, and practical work for change. This tradition, along with the newer traditions built upon work with gay men and bisexual people, provides a basis for feminists to expand work in economics on lesbian and gay issues. The articles in the symposium propose ideas for future research, for learning from other disciplines, and for creating a more welcoming academic climate.

The last of the modernists

The postmodern theoretical questioning of such categorizations as “gay” or “lesbian” raises difficult theoretical, methodological, and political issues for economists. Economists have much to gain from engaging in crossdisciplinary intellectual discussions about the nature of the categories that we take as given.