Machteld Rijkeboer

Atmospheric correction of SeaWiFS imagery for turbid coastal and inland waters

The standard SeaWiFS atmospheric correction algorithm, designed for open ocean water, has been extended for use over turbid coastal and inland waters. Failure of the standard algorithm over turbid waters can be attributed to invalid assumptions of zero water-leaving radiance for the near-infrared bands at 765 and 865 nm. In the present study these assumptions are replaced by the assumptions of spatial homogeneity of the 765:865-nm ratios for aerosol reflectance and for water-leaving reflectance. These two ratios are imposed as calibration parameters after inspection of the Rayleigh-corrected reflectance scatterplot. The performance of the new algorithm is demonstrated for imagery of Belgian coastal waters and yields physically realistic water-leaving radiance spectra. A preliminary comparison with in situ radiance spectra for the Dutch Lake Markermeer shows significant improvement over the standard atmospheric correction algorithm. An analysis is made of the sensitivity of results to the choice of calibration parameters, and perspectives for application of the method to other sensors are briefly discussed.

Optical remote sensing of chlorophyll a in case 2 waters by use of an adaptive two-band algorithm with optimal error properties

Two-band algorithms that use the ratio of reflectances at 672 and 704 nm have already proved successful for chlorophyll a retrieval in a range of coastal and inland waters. An analysis of the effect of reflectance measurement errors on such algorithms is made. It provides important indications of the range of validity of these algorithms and motivates the development of an entirely new type of adaptive two-band algorithm for hyperspectral data, whereby the higher wavelength is chosen for each input spectrum individually. When one selects the wavelength at which reflectance is equal to the reflectance at the red chlorophyll a absorption peak, chlorophyll a retrieval becomes entirely insensitive to spectrally flat reflectance errors, which are typical of imperfect atmospheric correction, and is totally uncoupled from the retrieval or an estimation of backscatter. This new algorithm has been tested for Dutch inland and Belgian coastal waters.

Coupling of phytoplankton and detritus in a shallow, eutrophic lake (Lake Loosdrecht, The Netherlands)

An oscillating steady state is described of phytoplankton, dominated by Prochlorothrix hollandica and Oscillatoria limnetica, and sestonic detritus in shallow, eutrophic Lake Loosdrecht (The Netherlands). A steady-state model for the coupling of the phytoplankton and detritus is discussed in relation to field and experimental data on phytoplankton growth and decomposition. According to model predictions, the phytoplankton to detritus ratio decreases hyperbolically at increasing phytoplankton growth rate and is independent of a lakes trophic state. The seston in L. Loosdrecht contains more detritus than phytoplankton as will apply to many other lakes. The model provides a basis for estimating the loss rate of the detritus, including decomposition, sedimentation and hydraulic loss. In a shallow lake like L. Loosdrecht detritus will continue to influence the water quality for years.

Subsurface irradiance reflectance spectra of inland waters differing in morphometry and hydrology

A database has been established for relating subsurface irradiance reflectance, i.e. water ‘colour’, to the optical properties and water quality parameters of more than 120 Dutch inland water bodies. The concentrations of total chlorophyll-a (TChl-a = chlorophyll-a plus phaeopigment), total suspended matter and the Secchi-disc depth varied between 0.6 and 468 mg m-3, 0.8 and 98 g m-3, and 0.15 and 5.50 m, respectively. The water bodies represented very different water types based on morphometry and hydrology. The depth ranged from 0.4 to 40 m, and the surface area from 0.25 ha (fens in the moorland Peel) to 1200 km2 (Lake IJsselmeer). The mean specific phytoplankton absorption coefficient at 676 nm was 0.013 ± 0.003 m2 (mg TChl-a)-1. The absorption by tripton and dissolved humic substances at 440 nm varied between 0.1 and 16.4 m-1, and 0.1 and 65.5 m-1, respectively. By using the spectral position and magnitude of the subsurface irradiance reflectance peak alone, it was possible to distinguish groups of water bodies according to a classical typology based on morphometry and hydrology.

Dynamics of Phytoplankton Detritus in a Shallow, Eutrophic Lake (Lake Loosdrecht, the Netherlands)

A study was made of the mortality and aerobic decomposition of light- and phosphorus-limited cultures of Oscillatoria limnetica, a dominant phytoplankton species in shallow, eutrophic Lake Loosdrecht (The Netherlands). When placed in the dark at 20 °C, most cells died and lysed within twelve days. The labile organic matter was completely decomposed within three weeks. Absorbance spectra indicated that blue green algae may contributed significantly to the refractory dissolved substances in the lake. Refractory particulate matter constituted from 7 to 24% of the biomass of O. limnetica, depending on the growth rate before incubation in the dark. The decomposition rate of this fraction was 0.005 d−1. On a basis of a steady-state model of the dynamics of phytoplankton detritus, the areal organic dry weight concentration of the detritus in the lake is ca. 60 g m−2. This means the quantities of detritus in the seston and epipelon are about equal.

Remote sensing for inland water quality detection and monitoring: State-of-the-art application in Friesland waters

Remote sensing is an emerging technology with respect to water quality detection and monitoring. It must be made clear to end-users that the results of the technique are beneficial to them in their work. For this purpose it is necessary to provide the end-user with adequate water quality information from remote sensing at the right time, in the right format, at a competitive price (as compared to alternative methods). A methodology has been developed in The Netherlands, based on these criteria, applicable anywhere in the world. The methodology embedded in PC-based software is based on sound modeling of the water-atmosphere system. This makes it possible to derive accurate remote sensing algorithms for estimating water quality parameters for the types of water present. The case study in Friesland described here is a representative example of an applied inland water study.

Interspecific variation in pigmentation : implications for production estimates for shallow eutrophic lakes using an incubator

In shallow, eutrophic Lake Loosdrecht, light attenuation and spectral changes with depth are pronounced due to high concentration of algae and tripton. Calculations of integrated daily primary production have been based on the photosynthesis-irradiance relationship (P/E-curve) obtained with the incubator technique. The suitability of this technique for estimating primary production in such a turbid lake was investigated by comparing P/E-curves for two differently pigmented algae, Oscillatoria limnetica and Prochlorothrix hollandica, in two laboratory systems differing in light regime. System (1) consisted of an incubator filled with tapwater, and system (2) was an algal culture in a laboratory scale enclosure (LSE). For O. limnetica the P/E-curves were identical. The P/E-curves for P. hollandica diverged considerably: the photosynthetic efficiency in the LSE (0.19 mg O2 (mg Chl)−1 h−1 (W m−2)−1 was about half of that obtained in the incubator (0.35 mg O2 (mg Chl)−1 h−1 (W m−2)−1. These results were explained by the interspecific variation in pigmentation. The photosynthetic efficiency of P. hollandica changed due to the dependence on the chlorophyll specific absorption for the whole photosynthetic waveband on the spectral light distribution, which for O. limnetica was approximately the same in the two light regimes. Column-integrated primary production computed with the photosynthetic characteristics of P. hollandica obtained in LSE, was 10–30% lower than the production based on incubator data.

Light-limited algal growth in Lake Loosdrecht : steady state studies in laboratory scale enclosures

Phytoplankton growth in the shallow, turbid Lake Loosdrecht (The Netherlands) is importantly influenced by light availability, and thus the concentrations of the various light-attenuating materials. The system is highly eutrophic and supports an algal biomass of ca. 160 mg Chl m−3. A model is proposed here which predicts algal growth in the lake as a function of the light received and subsequent attenuation in the water column by phytoplankton, tripton and background colour. The model is based on an energy balance which relates growth rate to the ‘true’ growth yield on light energy and the energy demand for cell maintenance. The coefficients for energy conversion (Y = 0.002 gDW kJ−1) and cell maintenance (µe = 0.031 day−1) were determined from steady state growth kinetics of Prochlorothrix hollandica in light-limited laboratory flow systems with the same depth as the lake and receiving summer average conditions of irradiance. Light attenuation by phytoplankton and tripton were quantified using specific attenuation coefficients: 0.011 m2 mg−1 Chl for the phytoplankton and 0.23 m2 g−1 DW for tripton.

Phosphate uptake capacity of summer phytoplankton of the Loosdrecht Lakes in relation to phosphorus loading and irradiance

Summer populations of the phytoplankton of the Loosdrecht Lakes were enclosed in laboratory scale enclosures (LSE), supplied with 7.5 μg P.l−1.d−1 and 105 μg P.l−1.d−1, respectively. The maximum initial phosphate uptake rate (Vm) was related to irradiance and primary production. At phosphate uptake saturating light-irradiance Vm values up to 4 times the Vm values in the dark were measured.The phosphate uptake capacity per unit dry weight remained more or less constant throughout the experiments in the LSE receiving the lower amount of phosphorus, and declined in the LSE receiving the higher amount of phosphorus. Within the range of Vm values measured (<10 μg P.mg DW−1.h−1 or 1,3 μg P. μg chla−1.h−1), the growth rate of the phytoplankton was not influenced by alterations in phosphorus availability.

Influence of the mixing regime on algal photosynthetic performance in laboratory scale enclosures

The photosynthesis of plankton sampled from the eutrophic Lake Loosdrecht was studied in Laboratory Scale Enclosures (LSEs) with regard to the rate of mixing. First, two LSEs were operated at different mixing rates. No significant differences in photosynthetic performance were found, with the exception of a depressed photosynthesis in the afternoon in the LSE which had a low mixing rate. Secondly, when mixing was stopped, the phytoplankton which stayed in the dark due to the steep light gradient in the LSE responded by changing its maximal photosynthetic capacity. The results show that the filamentous cyanobacteria in the lake can respond rapidly to changes in the depth of the mixed layer by altering their photosynthetic performance.