Magdalena Gąssowska

Extracellular α-Synuclein Leads to Microtubule Destabilization via GSK-3β-Dependent Tau Phosphorylation in PC12 Cells

α-Synuclein (ASN) plays an important role in pathogenesis of Parkinsons disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative disorders. Novel and most interesting data showed elevated tauopathy in PD and suggested relationship between ASN and Tau protein. However, the mechanism of ASN-evoked Tau protein modification is not fully elucidated. In this study we investigated the role of extracellular ASN in Tau hyperphosphorylation in rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells and the involvement of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) in ASN-dependent Tau modification. Our results indicated that exogenously added ASN increases Tau phosphorylation at Ser396. Accordingly, the GSK-3β inhibitor (SB-216763) prevented ASN-evoked Tau hyperphosphorylation, but the CDK5 inhibitor had no effect. Moreover, western blot analysis showed that ASN affected GSK-3β via increasing of protein level and activation of this enzyme. GSK-3β activity evaluated by its phosphorylation status assay showed that ASN significantly increased the phosphorylation of this enzyme at Tyr216 with parallel decrease in phosphorylation at Ser9, indicative of stimulation of GSK-3β activity. Moreover, the effect of ASN on microtubule (MT) destabilization and cell death with simultaneous the involvement of GSK-3β in these processes were analyzed. ASN treatment increased the amount of free tubulin and concomitantly reduced the amount of polymerized tubulin and SB-216763 suppressed these ASN-induced changes in tubulin, indicating that GSK-3β is involved in ASN-evoked MT destabilization. ASN-induced apoptotic processes lead to decrease in PC12 cells viability and SB-216763 protected those cells against ASN-evoked cytotoxicity. Concluding, extracellular ASN is involved in GSK-3β-dependent Tau hyperphosphorylation, which leads to microtubule destabilization. GSK-3β inhibition may be an effective strategy for protecting against ASN-induced cytotoxicity.

Extracellular alpha-synuclein induces calpain-dependent overactivation of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 in vitro.

We found that exposure of PC12 cells to ASN increases Cdk5 activity via calpain‐dependent p25 formation and by enhancement of Cdk5 phosphorylation at Tyr15. Cdk5 and calpain inhibitors prevented ASN‐evoked cell death. Our findings, indicating the participation of Cdk5 in ASN toxicity, provide new insight into how extracellular ASN may trigger dopaminergic cell dysfunction in PD.

Perinatal exposure to lead (Pb) promotes Tau phosphorylation in the rat brain in a GSK-3β and CDK5 dependent manner: Relevance to neurological disorders

Hyperphosphorylation of Tau is involved in the pathomechanism of neurological disorders such as Alzheimers, Parkinsons diseases as well as Autism. Epidemiological data suggest the significance of early life exposure to lead (Pb) in etiology of disorders affecting brain function. However, the precise mechanisms by which Pb exerts neurotoxic effects are not fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of perinatal exposure to low dose of Pb on the Tau pathology in the developing rat brain. Furthermore, the involvement of two major Tau-kinases: glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β) and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) in Pb-induced Tau modification was evaluated. Pregnant female rats were divided into control and Pb-treated group. The control animals were maintained on drinking water while females from the Pb-treated group received 0.1% lead acetate (PbAc) in drinking water, starting from the first day of gestation until weaning of the offspring. During the feeding of pups, mothers from the Pb-treated group were still receiving PbAc. Pups of both groups were weaned at postnatal day 21 and then until postnatal day 28 received only drinking water. 28-day old pups were sacrificed and Tau mRNA and protein level as well as Tau phosphorylation were analyzed in forebrain cortex (FC), cerebellum (C) and hippocampus (H). Concomitantly, we examined the effect of Pb exposure on GSK-3β and CDK5 activation. Our data revealed that pre- and neonatal exposure to Pb (concentration of Pb in whole blood below 10μg/dL, considered safe for humans) caused significant increase in the phosphorylation of Tau at Ser396 and Ser199/202 with parallel rise in the level of total Tau protein in FC and C. Tau hyperphosphorylation in Pb-treated animals was accompanied by elevated activity of GSK-3β and CDK5. Western blot analysis revealed activation of GSK-3β in FC and C as well as CDK5 in C, via increased phosphorylation of Tyr-216 and calpain-dependent p25 formation, respectively. In conclusion, perinatal exposure to Pb up-regulates Tau protein level and induces Tau hyperphosphorylation in the rat brain cortex and cerebellum. We suggest that neurotoxic effect of Pb might be mediated, at least in part, by GSK-3β and CDK5-dependent Tau hyperphosphorylation, which may lead to the impairment of cytoskeleton stability and neuronal dysfunction.

Alterations of Cyclin dependent kinase 5 expression and phosphorylation in Amyloid precursor protein (APP)-transfected PC12 cells

The aim of the present study was to analyse the alterations of Cyclin dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) expression and phosphorylation in PC12 cells overexpressing Amyloid precursor protein (APP). Our results demonstrated enhanced cell death and increased levels of mRNA for the Cdk5 gene in APP‐transfected cells. Significantly decreased phosphorylation of Cdk5 at Tyr15 was observed in APPsw cells, which is responsible for a reduction in Cdk5 activity. Cdk5‐dependent phosphorylation of Glycogen synthase kinase‐3β (Gsk‐3β) at Ser9 was also decreased, which can lead to the increase of Gsk‐3β activity and hyperphosphorylation of MAP tau. Our results demonstrate for the first time, a deregulation of Cdk5 phosphorylation in APP‐transfected cells.

Perinatal exposure to lead (Pb) induces ultrastructural and molecular alterations in synapses of rat offspring

Lead (Pb), environmentally abundant heavy-metal pollutant, is a strong toxicant for the developing central nervous system. Pb intoxication in children, even at low doses, is found to affect learning and memorizing, with devastating effects on cognitive function and intellectual development. However, the precise mechanism by which Pb impairs synaptic plasticity is not fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of pre- and neonatal exposure to low dose of Pb (with Pb concentrations in whole blood below 10μg/dL) on the synaptic structure and the pre- and postsynaptic proteins expression in the developing rat brain. Furthermore, the level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was analyzed. Pregnant female Wistar rats received 0.1% lead acetate (PbAc) in drinking water from the first day of gestation until weaning of the offspring, while the control animals received drinking water. During the feeding of pups, mothers from the Pb-group were continuously receiving PbAc. Pups of both groups were weaned at postnatal day 21 and then until postnatal day 28 received only drinking water. 28-Day old pups were sacrificed and the ultrastructural changes as well as expression of presynaptic (VAMP1/2, synaptophysin, synaptotagmin-1, SNAP25, syntaxin-1) and postsynaptic (PSD-95) proteins were analyzed in: forebrain cortex, cerebellum and hippocampus. Our data revealed that pre- and neonatal exposure to low dose of Pb promotes pathological changes in synapses, including nerve endings swelling, blurred and thickened synaptic cleft structure as well as enhanced density of synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic area. Moreover, synaptic mitochondria were elongated, swollen or shrunken in Pb-treated animals. These structural abnormalities were accompanied by decrease in the level of key synaptic proteins: synaptotagmin-1 in cerebellum, SNAP25 in hippocampus and syntaxin-1 in cerebellum and hippocampus. In turn, increased level of synaptophysin was noticed in the cerebellum, while the expression of postsynaptic PSD-95 was significantly decreased in forebrain cortex and cerebellum, and raised in hippocampus. Additionally, we observed the lower level of BDNF in all brain structures in comparison to control animals. In conclusion, perinatal exposure to low doses of Pb caused pathological changes in nerve endings associated with the alterations in the level of key synaptic proteins. All these changes can lead to synaptic dysfunction, expressed by the impairment of the secretory mechanism and thereby to the abnormalities in neurotransmission as well as to the neuronal dysfunction.Lead (Pb), environmentally abundant heavy-metal pollutant, is a strong toxicant for the developing central nervous system. Pb intoxication in children, even at low doses, is found to affect learning and memorizing, with devastating effects on cognitive function and intellectual development. However, the precise mechanism by which Pb impairs synaptic plasticity is not fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of pre- and neonatal exposure to low dose of Pb (with Pb concentrations in whole blood below 10μg/dL) on the synaptic structure and the pre- and postsynaptic proteins expression in the developing rat brain. Furthermore, the level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was analyzed. Pregnant female Wistar rats received 0.1% lead acetate (PbAc) in drinking water from the first day of gestation until weaning of the offspring, while the control animals received drinking water. During the feeding of pups, mothers from the Pb-group were continuously receiving PbAc. Pups of both groups were weaned at postnatal day 21 and then until postnatal day 28 received only drinking water. 28-day old pups were sacrificed and the ultrastructural changes as well as expression of presynaptic (VAMP1/2, synaptophysin, synaptotagmin-1, SNAP25, syntaxin-1) and postsynaptic (PSD-95) proteins were analyzed in: forebrain cortex, cerebellum and hippocampus. Our data revealed that pre- and neonatal exposure to low dose of Pb promotes pathological changes in synapses, including nerve endings swelling, blurred and thickened synaptic cleft structure as well as enhanced density of synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic area. Moreover, synaptic mitochondria were elongated, swollen or shrunken in Pb-treated animals. These structural abnormalities were accompanied by decrease in the level of key synaptic proteins: synaptotagmin-1 in cerebellum, SNAP25 in hippocampus and syntaxin-1 in cerebellum and hippocampus. In turn, increased level of synaptophysin was noticed in the cerebellum, while the expression of postsynaptic PSD-95 was significantly decreased in forebrain cortex and cerebellum, and raised in hippocampus. Additionally, we observed the lower level of BDNF in all brain structures in comparison to control animals. In conclusion, perinatal exposure to low doses of Pb caused pathological changes in nerve endings associated with the alterations in the level of key synaptic proteins. All these changes can lead to synaptic dysfunction, expressed by the impairment of the secretory mechanism and thereby to the abnormalities in neurotransmission as well as to the neuronal dysfunction.

The mechanisms regulating cyclin-dependent kinase 5 in hippocampus during systemic inflammatory response: The effect on inflammatory gene expression

Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) is critical for nervous systems development and function, and its aberrant activation contributes to pathomechanism of Alzheimers disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. It was recently suggested that Cdk5 may participate in regulation of inflammatory signalling. The aim of this study was to analyse the mechanisms involved in regulating Cdk5 activity in the brain during systemic inflammatory response (SIR) as well as the involvement of Cdk5 in controlling the expression of inflammatory genes. Genetic and biochemical alterations in hippocampus were analysed 3 and 12 h after intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide. We observed an increase in both Cdk5 gene expression and protein level. Moreover, phosphorylation of Cdk5 on Ser159 was significantly enhanced. Also transcription of Cdk5-regulatory protein (p35/Cdk5r1) was augmented, and the level of p25, calpain-dependent cleavage product of p35, was increased. All these results demonstrated rapid activation of Cdk5 in the brain during SIR. Hyperactivity of Cdk5 contributed to enhanced phosphorylation of tau and glycogen synthase kinase 3β. Inhibition of Cdk5 with Roscovitine reduced activation of NF-κB and expression of inflammation-related genes, demonstrating the critical role of Cdk5 in regulation of gene transcription during SIR.

P2X7 receptor-pannexin 1 interaction mediates extracellular alpha-synuclein-induced ATP release in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells

Abnormalities of alpha-synuclein (ASN), the main component of protein deposits (Lewy bodies), were observed in Parkinson’s disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies, Alzheimer’s disease, and other neurodegenerative disorders. These alterations include increase in the levels of soluble ASN oligomers in the extracellular space. Numerous works have identified several mechanisms of their toxicity, including stimulation of the microglial P2X7 receptor leading to oxidative stress. While the significant role of purinergic signaling—particularly, P2 family receptors—in neurodegenerative disorders is well known, the interaction of extracellular soluble ASN with neuronal purinergic receptors is yet to be studied. Therefore, in this study, we have investigated the effect of ASN on P2 purinergic receptors and ATP-dependent signaling. We used neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line and rat synaptoneurosomes treated with exogenous soluble ASN. The experiments were performed using spectrofluorometric, radiochemical, and immunochemical methods. We found the following: (i) ASN-induced intracellular free calcium mobilization in neuronal cells and nerve endings depends on the activation of purinergic P2X7 receptors; (ii) activation of P2X7 receptors leads to pannexin 1 recruitment to form an active complex responsible for ATP release; and (iii) ASN greatly decreases the activity of extracellular ecto-ATPase responsible for ATP degradation. Thus, it is concluded that purinergic receptors might be putative pharmacological targets in the molecular mechanism of extracellular ASN toxicity. Interference with P2X7 signaling seems to be a promising strategy for the prevention or therapy of PD and other neurodegenerative disorders.

Altered Arginine Metabolism in Cells Transfected with Human Wild-Type Beta Amyloid Precursor Protein (βAPP)

Alterations of enzymes linked to arginine metabolism have been recently implicated in Alzheimers disease (AD). Despite strong association of arginine changes with nitric oxide (NO) pathway, the impact of amyloid β (Aβ) peptides on arginine degradation and re-synthesis is unknown. In the present study we compared expression levels of arginases (ARG1, ARG2), neuronal, endothelial and inducible NO synthase isoforms (NNOS, ENOS, INOS), enzymes that metabolize arginine or resynthesize it from citrulline and the levels of corresponding amino acids in rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells overexpressing human Aβ precursor protein (APPwt cells). Moreover, we investigated the changes in miRNAs responsible for modulation of arginine metabolism in AD brains. Real-time PCR analysis revealed in APPwt cells significant decreases of ARG1 and ARG2 which are responsible for lysing arginine into ornithine and urea; this reduction was followed by significantly lower enzyme activity. NNOS and ENOS mRNAs were elevated in APPwt cells while iNOS was undetectable in both cell lines. The expression of argininosuccinate synthase (ASS) that metabolizes citrulline was down-regulated without changes in argininosuccinate lyase (ASL). Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), which decarboxylates ornithine to form putrescine was also reduced. Arginine, the substrate for both arginases and NOS, was unchanged in APPwt cells. However, citrulline concentration was significantly higher. Elevated miRNA-9 and miRNA-128a found in AD brain tissues might modulate the expression of ASS and NOS, respectively. Our results indicate that Aβ affects arginine metabolism and this influence might have important role in the pathomechanism of AD.