Magnus Gålfalk

Spatio‐temporal variability of lake CH4 fluxes and its influence on annual whole lake emission estimates

Lakes are major sources of methane (CH4) to the atmosphere that contribute significantly to the global budget. Recent studies have shown that diffusive fluxes, ebullition and surface water CH4 conc ...

A multi-wavelength census of star formation activity in the young embedded cluster around Serpens/G3-G6 ,

Aims.The aim of this paper is to characterise the star formation activity in the poorly studied embedded cluster Serpens/G3-G6, located ~45 arcmin (3 pc) to the south of the Serpens Cloud Core, and to determine the luminosity and mass functions of its population of Young Stellar Objects (YSOs).Methods: .Multi-wavelength broadband photometry was obtained to sample the near and mid-IR spectral energy distributions to separate YSOs from field stars and classify the YSO evolutionary stage. ISOCAM mapping in the two filters LW2 (5-8.5 μm) and LW3 (12-18 μm) of a 19 arcmin × 16 arcmin field was combined with JHKS data from 2MASS, KS data from Arnica/NOT, and L arcmin data from SIRCA/NOT. Continuum emission at 1.3 mm (IRAM) and 3.6 cm (VLA) was mapped to study the cloud structure and the coldest/youngest sources. Deep narrow band imaging at the 2.12 μm S(1) line of H2 from NOTCam/NOT was obtained to search for signs of bipolar outflows.Results: .We have strong evidence for a stellar population of 31 Class II sources, 5 flat-spectrum sources, 5 Class I sources, and two Class 0 sources. Our method does not sample the Class III sources. The cloud is composed of two main dense clumps aligned along a ridge over ~0.5 pc plus a starless core coinciding with absorption features seen in the ISOCAM maps. We find two S-shaped bipolar collimated flows embedded in the NE clump, and propose the two driving sources to be a Class 0 candidate (MMS3) and a double Class I (MMS2). For the Class II population we find a best age of ~2 Myr and compatibility with recent Initial Mass Functions (IMFs) by comparing the observed Class II luminosity function (LF), which is complete to 0.08 Lȯ, to various model LFs with different star formation scenarios and input IMFs.

A detailed study of the L1641N star formation region

Aims. We search for young stellar objects (YSOs) in the L1641N cluster and characterize the star formation activity through determination of the age distribution, mass function, spatial distribution, and the star formation history. Methods. Multi-wavelength broad band photometry both from space and the ground are used to look for IR excess in order to separate field stars from YSOs and to sample the spectral energy distributions. Space-based observations were obtained using the ISO satellite (ISOCAM) in two filters, centred at 6.7 and 14.3 μm, and Spitzer (IRAC) at 3.6, 4.5, 5.8, and 8.0 μm. Our ground-based observations were made with the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT) using ALFOSC (I band), NOTCam (J, KS and 2.12 μ mH 2), and SIRCA (L � ). More than 50 of the brightest I-band sources were then studied with follow-up optical spectroscopy (5780−8340 A) to check for signs of accretion (Hα in emission) and youth (Li I λ6707 in absorption) and to determine their effective temperatures. By comparing theoretical evolution tracks with our YSO sample in the H-R diagram, we calculated an age, luminosity, and mass distribution. Results. We detect a total of 216 (Spitzer or I band) sources in L1641N, 89 of which are YSO candidates. Most of the spectra are of M-type with Hα strongly in emission, and many have Li 6707 in absorption. The four brightest I band sources (F and G stars) are suggested as foreground stars, and the L1641N IRAS source is shown to be the combined flux of at least four sources. We find that the interstellar extinction is well-fit in the optical and near-IR by a power law with an exponent of 1.58, although in the mid-IR the Spitzer observations show a higher extinction than expected from theory. The median age of the YSO sample is ∼1 Myr and the resulting MF has a flat distribution for low masses down to the completeness limit. There is evidence of a constant star formation rate of one star in 3.7 × 10 4 yr during the past few Myr. We find 11 sources older than 10 Myr and a spatial separation between younger and older YSOs, suggesting that many of the older stars formed in L1641N could have left the cluster, giving the appearance of an increased star formation rate with time.Aims. We search for young stellar objects (YSOs) in the L1641N cluster and characterize the star formation activity through determination of the age distribution, mass function, spatial distribution, and the star formation history. Methods. Multi-wavelength broad band photometry both from space and the ground are used to look for IR excess in order to separate field stars from YSOs and to sample the spectral energy distributions. Space-based observations were obtained using the ISO satellite (ISOCAM) in two filters, centred at 6.7 and 14.3 μm, and Spitzer (IRAC) at 3.6, 4.5, 5.8, and 8.0 μm. Our ground-based observations were made with the Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT) using ALFOSC (I band), NOTCam (J, KS and 2.12 μm H2), and SIRCA (L’). More than 50 of the brightest I-band sources were then studied with follow-up optical spectroscopy (5780–8340 Å) to check for signs of accretion (Hα in emission) and youth (Li I λ6707 in absorption) and to determine their effective temperatures. By comparing theoretical evolution tracks with our YSO sample in the H-R diagram, we calculated an age, luminosity, and mass distribution. Results. We detect a total of 216 (Spitzer or I band) sources in L1641N, 89 of which are YSO candidates. Most of the spectra are of M-type with Hα strongly in emission, and many have Li 6707 in absorption. The four brightest I band sources (F and G stars) are suggested as foreground stars, and the L1641N IRAS source is shown to be the combined flux of at least four sources. We find that the interstellar extinction is well-fit in the optical and near-IR by a power law with an exponent of 1.58, although in the mid-IR the Spitzer observations show a higher extinction than expected from theory. The median age of the YSO sample is ∼1 Myr and the resulting MF has a flat distribution for low masses down to the completeness limit. There is evidence of a constant star formation rate of one star in 3.7× 104 yr during the past few Myr. We find 11 sources older than 10 Myr and a spatial separation between younger and older YSOs, suggesting that many of the older stars formed in L1641N could have left the cluster, giving the appearance of an increased star formation rate with time.

Herbig-Haro flows in B335

Mass is clearly the most important parameter of a star as it determines the phases it will go through, its physical parameters, the elements produced and its life span. Two important processes that occur simultaneously in young stars are directly related to the final mass a star ends up with; the accretion of material onto the star from a circumstellar disk and the bipolar outflow of material from the star. These processes are related since the infalling material drives the outflow. The life span of circumstellar disks is also important for the possibility of life, as this limits the time available for planet formation. This may depend on the stellar mass and its environment.Three detailed observational case-studies are presented, a globule (B335) that is forming only one or two stars, a medium-sized star formation region (L1551) and a large cluster of young stars (YSOs) in a part of our nearest giant molecular cloud (L1641N).The first part of this thesis concerns finding YSOs by looking for mid-IR excess, indicative of circumstellar disks, using the ISO and Spitzer satellites in combination with ground-based observations. Other signs of youth are also used; H-alpha in emission (accretion), Li 6707 in absorption (Li is destroyed with age) and cloud membership based on extinction. The detection of 15 new YSO candidates in L1551 (Paper I) and 89 YSOs in L1641N (Paper II) is presented. In L1641N, distributions are presented of stellar age and mass. An empirical extinction law is found and the star formation history is presented. There seems to be an accelerated star formation with time. This can however also be explained, at least partly, by migration of older stars from the cluster - a migration that may very well be mass dependent.The second part concerns bipolar outflows. The discovery of six Herbig-Haro objects and at least 15 H2 objects in B335 is presented (Paper III) as well as proper motions for previously known objects. A planar shock model is used to calculate shock velocities. In L1641N (Paper IV) we discover a new outflow source and connect this to a number of H2 objects that are found to be part of this flow from proper motion measurements.

Herbig-Haro flows in L1641N

Mass is clearly the most important parameter of a star as it determines the phases it will go through, its physical parameters, the elements produced and its life span. Two important processes that occur simultaneously in young stars are directly related to the final mass a star ends up with; the accretion of material onto the star from a circumstellar disk and the bipolar outflow of material from the star. These processes are related since the infalling material drives the outflow. The life span of circumstellar disks is also important for the possibility of life, as this limits the time available for planet formation. This may depend on the stellar mass and its environment.Three detailed observational case-studies are presented, a globule (B335) that is forming only one or two stars, a medium-sized star formation region (L1551) and a large cluster of young stars (YSOs) in a part of our nearest giant molecular cloud (L1641N).The first part of this thesis concerns finding YSOs by looking for mid-IR excess, indicative of circumstellar disks, using the ISO and Spitzer satellites in combination with ground-based observations. Other signs of youth are also used; H-alpha in emission (accretion), Li 6707 in absorption (Li is destroyed with age) and cloud membership based on extinction. The detection of 15 new YSO candidates in L1551 (Paper I) and 89 YSOs in L1641N (Paper II) is presented. In L1641N, distributions are presented of stellar age and mass. An empirical extinction law is found and the star formation history is presented. There seems to be an accelerated star formation with time. This can however also be explained, at least partly, by migration of older stars from the cluster - a migration that may very well be mass dependent.The second part concerns bipolar outflows. The discovery of six Herbig-Haro objects and at least 15 H2 objects in B335 is presented (Paper III) as well as proper motions for previously known objects. A planar shock model is used to calculate shock velocities. In L1641N (Paper IV) we discover a new outflow source and connect this to a number of H2 objects that are found to be part of this flow from proper motion measurements.

ISOCAM observations of the L1551 star formation region

The results of a deep mid-IR ISOCAM survey of the L1551 dark molecular cloud are presented. The aim of this survey is a search for new YSO (Young Stellar Object) candidates, using two broad-band filters centred at 6.7 and 14.3 micron. Although two regions close to the centre of L1551 had to be avoided due to saturation problems, 96 sources were detected in total (76 sources at 6.7 micron and 44 sources at 14.3 micron). Using the 24 sources detected in both filters, 14 were found to have intrinsic mid-IR excess at 14.3 micron and were therefore classified as YSO candidates. Using additional observations in B, V, I, J, H and K obtained from the ground, most candidates detected at these wavelengths were confirmed to have mid-IR excess at 6.7 micron as well, and three additional YSO candidates were found. Prior to this survey only three YSOs were known in the observed region (avoiding L1551 IRS5/NE and HL/XZ Tau). This survey reveals 15 new YSO candidates, although several of these are uncertain due to their extended nature either in the mid-IR or in the optical/near-IR observations. Two of the sources with mid-IR excess are previously known YSOs, one is a brown dwarf MHO 5 and the other is the well known T Tauri star HH30, consisting of an outflow and an optically thick disk seen edge on.The results of a deep mid-IR ISOCAM survey of the L1551 dark molecular cloud are presented. The aim of this survey is a search for new YSO (Young Stellar Object) candidates, using two broad-band filters centred at 6.7 and 14.3 micron. Although two regions close to the centre of L1551 had to be avoided due to saturation problems, 96 sources were detected in total (76 sources at 6.7 micron and 44 sources at 14.3 micron). Using the 24 sources detected in both filters, 14 were found to have intrinsic mid-IR excess at 14.3 micron and were therefore classified as YSO candidates. Using additional observations in B, V, I, J, H and K obtained from the ground, most candidates detected at these wavelengths were confirmed to have mid-IR excess at 6.7 micron as well, and three additional YSO candidates were found. Prior to this survey only three YSOs were known in the observed region (avoiding L1551 IRS5/NE and HL/XZ Tau). This survey reveals 15 new YSO candidates, although several of these are uncertain due to their extended nature either in the mid-IR or in the optical/near-IR observations. Two of the sources with mid-IR excess are previously known YSOs, one is a brown dwarf MHO 5 and the other is the well known T Tauri star HH30, consisting of an outflow and an optically thick disk seen edge on.

Spatiotemporal variability of lake pCO2 and CO2 fluxes in a hemiboreal catchment

Globally, lakes are frequently supersaturated with carbon dioxide (CO2) and are major emitters of carbon to the atmosphere. Recent studies have generated awareness of the high variability in pCO2aq (the partial pressure corresponding to the concentration in water) and CO2 fluxes to the atmosphere and the need for better accounting for this variability. However, studies simultaneously accounting for both spatial and temporal variability of pCO2aq and CO2 fluxes in lakes are rare. We measured pCO2aq (by both manual sampling and mini loggers) and CO2 fluxes, covering spatial variability in open water areas of three lakes of different character in a Swedish catchment for two years. Spatial pCO2aq variability within lakes was linked to distance from shore, proximity to stream inlets, and deep water upwelling events. Temporally, pCO2aq variability was linked with variability in DOC, total nitrogen and dissolved oxygen. While previous studies over short time periods (1 to 6 hours) observed gas transfer velocity (k) to be more variable than pCO2aq, our work shows that over longer time (days to weeks) pCO2aq variability was greater and affected CO2 fluxes much more than k. We demonstrate that ≥ 8 measurement days distributed over multiple seasons in combination with sufficient spatial coverage (≥8 locations during stratification periods and 5 or less in spring and autumn) are a key for representative yearly whole lake flux estimates. This study illustrates the importance of considering spatio-temporal variability in pCO2aq and CO2 fluxes to generate representative whole lake estimates.

Remote sensing of methane and nitrous oxide fluxes from waste incineration

Incomplete combustion processes lead to the formation of many gaseous byproducts that can be challenging to monitor in flue gas released via chimneys. This study presents ground-based remote sensing approaches to make greenhouse gas (GHG) flux measurements of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from a waste incineration chimney at distances of 150-200 m. The study found emission of N2O (corresponding to 30-40 t yr-1), which is a consequence of adding the reduction agent urea to decrease NOX emissions due to NOX regulation; a procedure that instead increases N2O emissions (which is approximately 300 times more potent as a GHG than CO2 on a 100-year time scale). CH4 emissions of 7-11 t yr-1 was also detected from the studied chimney despite the usage of a high incineration temperature. For this particular plant, local knowledge is high and emission estimates at corresponding levels have been reported previously. However, emissions of CH4 are often not included in GHG emission inventories for waste incineration. This study highlights the importance of monitoring combustion processes, and shows the possibility of surveying CH4 and N2O emissions from waste incineration at distances of several hundred meters.