Magnus Karlström

Life cycle inventory of recycling portable nickel–cadmium batteries

Abstract In this study, the environmental impact of recycling portable nickel–cadmium (NiCd) batteries in Sweden is evaluated. A life cycle assessment approach was used to identify life cycle activities with significant impact, the influence of different recycling rates and different time boundaries for emissions of landfilled metals. Excluding the user phase of the battery, 65% of the primary energy is used in the manufacture of batteries while 32% is used in the production of raw materials. Metal emissions from batteries to water originate (96–98%) from landfilling and incineration. The transportation distance for the collection of batteries has no significant influence on energy use and emissions. Batteries manufactured with recycled nickel and cadmium instead of virgin metals have 16% lower primary energy use. Recycled cadmium and nickel metal require 46 and 75% less primary energy, respectively, compared with extraction and refining of virgin metal. Considering an infinite time perspective, the potential metal emissions are 300–400 times greater than during the initial 100 years. From an environmental perspective, the optimum recycling rate for NiCd batteries tends to be close to 100%. It may be difficult to introduce effective incitements to increase the battery collection rate. Cadmium should be used in products that are likely to be collected at the end of their life, otherwise collection and subsequent safe storage in concentrated form seems to offer the best solution to avoid dissipative losses.

Selecting and assessing demonstration projects for technology assessment: The cases of fuel cells and hydrogen systems in Sweden

Summary The present technological trajectories in many sectors are not sustainable. A range of policy instruments is needed to foster radically new and environmentally superior technologies. Support of demonstration projects is a standard instrument in early phases of the technology life-cycle. However, the role demonstration projects play and could play for the development and adoption of emerging technologies has been the subject of few studies. Here we try to ident6 some criteria for selecting and assessing demonstration projects. We stress that they could have an important role to play not only for technical development but also for market creation and network formation. We pay some extra attention to the role of environmental assessments and make some initial observations of how our framework could be applied to the area of fuel cells and hydrogen supply system.