Magnus Lindwall

The only constant is change: analysing and understanding change in sport and exercise psychology research

ABSTRACT The ability to examine within-person change is essential to test process-based theories in sport and exercise psychology. Longitudinal data, whether experimental or observational, are prerequisites to be able to examine change processes, but most longitudinal studies in sport and exercise psychology focus solely on between-person/group differences, not on within-person change. In this review, we (1) provide researchers in the sport and exercise psychology field with a framework for longitudinal research that focuses on within-person change; (2) provide an overview of how researchers in sport and exercise psychology currently analyse longitudinal data, which showed that most longitudinal studies focus on between-person/group differences; and (3) provide examples of statistical models for analysing longitudinal data that correspond to the framework for longitudinal research. In the examples, we focus on latent variable modelling, such as latent growth-curve modelling and latent change-score modelling, which capture within-person change. We argue that there is a need for stronger emphasis on the match among theory of change, temporal design, and statistical models when designing longitudinal studies in sport and exercise psychology.

Psychological Health in the Retirement Transition: Rationale and First Findings in the HEalth, Ageing and Retirement Transitions in Sweden (HEARTS) Study

From an aging research and life-course perspective, the transition to retirement marks a significant life-event and provides a unique opportunity to study psychological health and coping during a period of substantial change in everyday life. The aim of the present paper is to: (a) outline the rationale of the HEalth, Ageing and Retirement Transitions in Sweden (HEARTS) study, (b) describe the study sample, and (c) to present some initial results from the two first waves regarding the association between retirement status and psychological health. The HEARTS study is designed to annually study psychological health in the years before and following retirement, and to examine change and stability patterns related to the retirement event. Among a representative Swedish population-based sample of 14,990 individuals aged 60–66 years, 5,913 completed the baseline questionnaire in 2015. The majority of the participants (69%) completed a web-based survey, and the rest (31%) completed a paper version. The baseline HEARTS sample represents the general population well in terms of gender and age, but is more highly educated. Cross-sectional findings from the first wave showed that retired individuals demonstrated better psychological health compared to those who were still working. Longitudinal results from the first and second waves showed that individuals who retired between waves showed more positive changes in psychological health compared with those still working or previously retired.

Longitudinal associations between exercise identity and exercise motivation: A multilevel growth curve model approach

Past work linking exercise identity and exercise motivation has been cross‐sectional. This is the first study to model the relations between different types of exercise identity and exercise motivation longitudinally. Understanding the dynamic associations between these sets of variables has implications for theory development and applied research. This was a longitudinal survey study. Participants were 180 exercisers (79 men, 101 women) from Greece, who were recruited from fitness centers and were asked to complete questionnaires assessing exercise identity (exercise beliefs and role‐identity) and exercise motivation (intrinsic, identified, introjected, external motivation, and amotivation) three times within a 6 month period. Multilevel growth curve modeling examined the role of motivational regulations as within‐ and between‐level predictors of exercise identity, and a model in which exercise identity predicted exercise motivation at the within‐ and between‐person levels. Results showed that within‐person changes in intrinsic motivation, introjected, and identified regulations were positively and reciprocally related to within‐person changes in exercise beliefs; intrinsic motivation was also a positive predictor of within‐person changes in role‐identity but not vice versa. Between‐person differences in the means of predictor variables were predictive of initial levels and average rates of change in the outcome variables. The findings show support to the proposition that a strong exercise identity (particularly exercise beliefs) can foster motivation for behaviors that reinforce this identity. We also demonstrate that such relations can be reciprocal overtime and can depend on the type of motivation in question as well as between‐person differences in absolute levels of these variables.

Exploring longitudinal measurement invariance and the continuum hypothesis in the Swedish version of the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ): An exploratory structural equation modeling approach

Objectives: The aims of the present study were to: (a) examine longitudinal measurement invariance in the Swedish version of the Behavioral Regulations in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ) and (b) examine the continuum hypothesis of motivation as postulated within self‐determination theory. Design: Two‐wave survey. Method: Young competitive athletes (N = 354) responded to the BRSQ early in the season (November) and at the end of the athletic season (April). Data were analyzed using exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and bifactor ESEM. Results: We found support for strict longitudinal measurement invariance in the BRSQ. Latent mean comparisons showed an increase in external regulation and amotivation across the season. The latent factor correlations indicated some deviations from a simplex pattern related to amotivation, external regulation, and introjected regulation. In the bifactor model, intrinsic motivation items had negative factor loadings on the global factor, identified regulation items had factor loadings approaching zero, and introjected and external regulation and amotivation items all had moderate to strong positive factor loadings. Conclusion: The present study adds longitudinal measurement invariance to the psychometric evidence of the BRSQ. Research on why the latent means of the behavioral regulations changed over the athletic season is warranted. The continuum hypothesis was partially supported. Latent factor correlations and factor loadings on the global factor in the bifactor ESEM highlighted that the discriminant validity of the controlled regulations and amotivation needs further investigation. HighlightsWe found support for strict longitudinal measurement invariance in the BRSQ.External regulation and amotivation increased across the season.Results partially support a continuum structure of sport motivation.

Motivational profiles and burnout in elite athletes: A person-centered approach

&NA; The aim of this study was to assess the link between elite athletes motivational profiles and burnout using a person‐centered approach. Participants were 391 Spanish elite athletes (201 males and 190 females), aged 16–30 years who completed questionnaires measuring demographic information, self‐determined motivation, and athlete burnout. Latent profile analysis resulted in a five profile solution labeled: amotivation (Class 1), low motivation (Class 2), moderately autonomous motivation (Class 3), amotivated and moderately controlled motivation (Class 4), and highly motivated (Class 5). While no significant differences were found in emotional/physical exhaustion, Class 4 (amotivated and moderately controlled motivation) scored higher than classes 2 (low motivation), 3 (moderately autonomous motivation), and 5 (highly motivated) on a Reduced sense of Accomplishment and Sport Devaluation. Findings are discussed in relation to Self‐Determination Theory, suggesting that the quality of ones motivation may be equally, if not more important than the quantity of motivation in determining subsequent health, well‐being, and performance outcomes. HighlightsThe findings indicate that elite level athletes may have high levels of both autonomous and controlled motivation.The high autonomous and controlled motivation had the lowest scores on reduced sense of accomplishment and sport devaluation.The quality of ones motivation may be equally, if not more important than the quantity of motivation in subsequent health and performance.

THE ROLE OF PERSONALITY IN THE ADAPTATION TO RETIREMENT

While personality has been believed to moderate individual adjustment to retirement, no prospective study has yet investigated this assumption. We used data from two waves of the HEARTS (Health, Aging, and Retirement Transitions in Sweden) study (N=5.913, Age 60–66). We applied latent profile analysis to find personality profiles based on the Big 5 personality traits with data from the first wave. The analysis supports a four class solution. In preliminary analyses, we find personality profile to predict depressive symptoms both cross-sectionally and prospectively. Furthermore, we find that involuntary retirement between waves is associated with an increase in depressive symptoms. Persons with a specific personality profile (so called “undercontrollers”), experience stronger effects of involuntary retirement. Further effects and possible pathways will be investigated next and presented at the conference.

Presenteeism, stress resilience, and physical activity in older manual workers: a person-centred analysis

This study used a person-centred approach to explore typologies of older manual workers based on presenteeism, stress resilience, and physical activity. Older manual workers (nxa0=xa0217; 69.1% male; age range 50–77; M agexa0=xa057.11xa0years; SDxa0=xa05.62) from a range of UK-based organisations, representing different manual job roles, took part in the study. A cross-sectional survey design was used. Based on the three input variables: presenteeism, stress resilience and physical activity, four distinct profiles were identified on using Latent Profile Analysis. One group (‘High sport/exercise and well-functioning’; 5.50%) engaged in high levels of sport/exercise and exhibited low levels of stress resilience and all types of presenteeism. Another profile (‘Physically burdened’; 9.70%) reported high levels of work and leisure-time physical activity, low stress resilience, as well as high levels of presenteeism due to physical and time demands. A ‘Moderately active and functioning’ group (46.50%) exhibited moderate levels on all variables. Finally, the fourth profile (‘Moderately active with high presenteeism’; 38.20%) reported engaging in moderate levels of physical activity and had relatively high levels of stress resilience, yet also high levels of presenteeism. The profiles differed on work affect and health perceptions largely in the expected directions. There were no differences between the profiles in socio-demographics. These results highlight complex within-person interactions between presenteeism, stress resilience, and physical activity in older manual workers. The identification of profiles of older manual workers who are at risk of poor health and functioning may inform targeted interventions to help retain them in the workforce for longer.