Maike Andresen

Addressing international mobility confusion – developing definitions and differentiations for self-initiated and assigned expatriates as well as migrants

The literature on international human resource management indicates a growing array of different forms of international work experiences such as assigned and self-initiated expatriation. However, the criteria for demarcation of these different forms and the term ‘migrant’ are often unclear which leads to an unfortunate lack of comparability of research and a potential confusion for readers. Based on the sociological, psychological and economics literature, this article reviews and synthesizes the existing definitions of the three terms in the current research. A qualitative content analysis and the Rubicon model [Heckhausen, H., and Gollwitzer, P.M. (1987), ‘Thought Contents and Cognitive Functioning in Motivational Versus Volitional States of Mind’, Motivation and Emotion, 1, 101–120.] are used as a theoretical base to structure the findings. The paper creates a criteria-based definition and differentiation of terms and then develops a typology of four different types of expatriates: assigned expatriates, inter-self-initiated expatriates, intra-self-initiated expatriates and drawn expatriates. Implications for management as well as for future research are outlined.

What makes them move abroad? Reviewing and exploring differences between self-initiated and assigned expatriation

Only in recent years have self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) been distinguished from assigned expatriates (AEs). But there is still a lack of empirically based comparative results. Statistical analysis, performed on data from 193 expatriates (NAE = 67; NSIE = 126), indicates that self-initiated foreign work experience is significantly more likely to be chosen by women and those having lower job levels. Furthermore, boundaryless and protean career orientation only partially predicted which career path is chosen. SIEs have higher organizational mobility preferences, but do not differ from AEs in their boundaryless mindset and protean career attitude. Implications of these findings for research in expatriation are discussed.

A taxonomy of internationally mobile managers

Research on expatriates indicates that substantial differences exist within internationally active employees. Several typologies of expatriates have been suggested to account for this diverseness. However, empirical evidence on the accuracy of these classification schemes is scarce. On the basis of these research efforts, we introduce a data-based taxonomy of internationally mobile managers. By means of sequence analysis, we derive four career patterns from the curriculi vitae of 202 German managers. These patterns are built on the dimensions mobility and duration of the stays abroad. We further show that these patterns differ with regard to various individual and organizational variables. On the basis of these findings, we argue that expatriation career management practices and responsibilities need to be differentiated.Research on expatriates indicates that substantial differences exist within internationally active employees. Several typologies of expatriates have been suggested to account for this diverseness. However, empirical evidence on the accuracy of these classification schemes is scarce. On the basis of these research efforts, we introduce a data-based taxonomy of internationally mobile managers. By means of sequence analysis, we derive four career patterns from the curriculi vitae of 202 German managers. These patterns are built on the dimensions mobility and duration of the stays abroad. We further show that these patterns differ with regard to various individual and organizational variables. On the basis of these findings, we argue that expatriation career management practices and responsibilities need to be differentiated.

The corporate university landscape in Germany

Purpose – The paper seeks first to present an overview of the corporate university landscape in Germany contrasting it with the US‐American corporate university market and, second, to outline the development in Germany during the last 15 years and to have a look at future trends such as learning alliances.Design/methodology/approach – The comparison in the paper is based on empirical data of the largest corporate universities in the USA and Germany gathered by interviews with the heads of the institutions and by evaluations of data such as homepages, brochures, and presentations by the companies. In addition, reference is made to surveys and case studies published by other researchers.Findings – The paper works out major differences between Germany and the USA regarding the educational level, target groups, strategic directions, partnerships, alliances with external vendors, accreditation, focus on internal versus external job market, and organisation that can be led back to the stronger strategic orienta...

A systematic literature review on the definitions of global mindset and cultural intelligence – merging two different research streams

Abstract The literature on global mindset indicates a growing array of different approaches to its definition and conceptualization. The components making up global mindset are often unclear and vary significantly between studies. Concomitantly, global mindset shows major overlap with the cultural intelligence construct. This leads to an unfortunate lack of comparability of research results and to potential confusion for readers. In this article, the authors systematically review and synthesize the existing definitions and conceptualizations of global mindset and cultural intelligence. These definitions and conceptualizations are grouped according to four dimensions of cross-cultural competencies: personal attributes, cognitive knowledge and skills, motivation, and resources for adapting behavior. Based on this analysis, we provide definitions and a demarcation of the constructs global mindset and cultural intelligence using the three levels of business management (normative, strategic, and operative). Whereas cultural intelligence is a sufficient cross-cultural competency for employees working in operative management, a global mindset becomes highly relevant at the strategic and normative management levels. We derive implications for management practice as well as for future research.

International relocation mobility readiness and its antecedents

Purpose – International relocation for work reasons implies uncertainty and stress, resulting in high expatriate failure rates. Hence, organizations should consider employee’s international relocation mobility readiness (IRMR) in selection processes. The purpose of this paper is to identify personal as well as social antecedents of IRMR. Design/methodology/approach – Data were gathered by an online survey (n=273 German employees) and analyzed using SEM. Findings – SEM results indicate that attitudinal (boundaryless mindset), biographical (previous international work experience) and social variables (the perceived social endorsement of international relocation mobility) are positively related to IRMR. The positive relationship between personality variables (uncertainty tolerance, proactive personality) and IRMR is mediated by boundaryless mindset. Research limitations/implications – The sampling method applied limits the generalization of the results. Practical implications – Results can be applied in pers...

What determines expatriates’ performance while abroad? The role of job embeddedness

Purpose - – The purpose of this paper is to empirically examine job embeddedness as antecedent of job performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) of expatriates. Design/methodology/approach - – In total, 194 expatriates from 39 nationalities were recruited through various expatriate organizations, which provided expatriate groups they had access to with a link to the online survey in English. To test the hypotheses, the author used bivariate analyses and multivariate regressions were calculated to control for alternative explanations. Findings - – As hypothesized, community embeddedness was positively related to job performance and both organizational embeddedness and community embeddedness were positively related to OCBs. Moreover, community embeddedness and organizational embeddedness showed to be positively related. In addition, organizational embeddedness partially mediated the positive relationship between community embeddedness and job performance for organizational expatriates (moderated mediation) as well as the positive relationship between community embeddedness and OCBs. Originality/value - – This is one of the first study to address the differential effects of organizational and community embeddedness on job performance in an expatriation context.

A Look Into the Future: Is Working Time Freedom Apt to Add Value for Different Stakeholders?

A potential future scenario in the field of working time flexibilization is that input control (recording working hours) will be replaced by output control (recording goal achievement). The underlying work time model is referred to as ‘working time freedom’ or ‘results-only work environment’ (ROWE). The implementation of working time freedom presupposes a collective effort to change the organizational culture so that employee control over the time, timing, and location of their work becomes the norm for all or a large group of employees at all levels of the occupational hierarchy. Traditional attempts to flexibilize working hours (such as part-time work, telecommuting, compressed work weeks), by contrast, rely on individual agreements with select employees and require a supervisors’ permission as a basic principle. ROWE has so far been implemented in few companies in the US, but rarely in Europe due to legal restrictions. This chapter discusses functional and dysfunctional effects of a ROWE for different stakeholders based on first empirical evidence, theoretical models and expert interviews. While the added value of working time freedom is deemed to be positive, several management practices are outlined as prerequisites for its success.

Reziprozitätsformen in psychologischen Verträgen. Eine empirische Untersuchung am Beispiel von Auslandsentsandten

Die einschlägige Forschung betrachtet psychologische Verträge primär aus einer individualistisch-rationalen Perspektive. Wie alle Verträge so sind auch psychologische Verträge jedoch in einen soziokulturellen Kontext eingebettet, welcher maßgeblichen Einfluss auf die Handlungsmotive und Tauschprozesse der Akteure hat. Wir verfolgen daher mit unserer Forschung zwei Ziele. Zum einen möchten wir die soziokulturellen Bedingungen erforschen, die das (Tausch-)Verhalten in psychologischen Verträgen beeinflussen, und zum anderen die Motive, die diesen Tauschprozessen zugrunde liegen. Im Rahmen einer qualitativen Studie erhoben wir mittels Interviews Daten von 54 deutschen Expatriates und analysierten diese auf Basis der Grounded Theory. Wir konnten herausarbeiten, dass psychologische Verträge in einen komplexen soziokulturellen Kontext eingebettet sind. Mit Blick auf diesen soziokulturellen Kontext wird deutlich, dass neben den individualistischen Handlungskalkülen auch moralische und prosoziale Handlungsmotive in psychologischen Verträgen relevant sind. Auf der Basis dieser Ergebnisse generierten wir zwei dominante Reziprozitätstypen, die utilitaristische Tauschreziprozität und die solidarische Gabenreziprozität, die den psychologischen Verträgen der Expatriates zugrunde liegen.

Internationale Karrieren von Erwerbstätigen

Internationale Karrieren sind vielfaltig und folgen nicht einem spezifischen Muster. In diesem Buchkapitel werden vier unterschiedliche, empirisch belegbare internationale Karrierepfade beleuchtet: die fruhe internationale Karriere, die internationale organisationale Karriere, die internationale grenzenlose Karriere und die transnationale Karriere. Basierend auf deren spezifischen Merkmalen lassen sich Nutzen und Kosten dieser internationalen Karrierewege fur internationale Auslandstatige als auch fur Organisationen ableiten und gegenuberstellen. Unter Bezugnahme auf die Karrieresysteme verschiedener Lander ergeben sich hieraus bedeutende Implikationen fur das zukunftige Management von internationalen Laufbahnen und Karrieren in Organisationen.