Maja Slingerland

Biofuel, dairy production and beef in Brazil: competing claims on land use in São Paulo state

This paper examines the competing claims on land use resulting from the expansion of biofuel production. Sugarcane for biofuel drives agrarian change in São Paulo state, which has become the major ethanol-producing region in Brazil. We analyse how the expansion of sugarcane-based ethanol in São Paulo state has impacted dairy and beef production. Historical changes in land use, production technologies, and product and land prices are described, as well as how these are linked to changing policies in Brazil. We argue that sugarcane/biofuel expansion should be understood in the context of the dynamics of other agricultural sectors and the long-term national political economy rather than as solely due to recent global demand for biofuel. This argument is based on a meticulous analysis of changes in three important sectors – sugarcane, dairy farming, and beef production – and the mutual interactions between these sectors.

Comparative analysis of village chicken production in two farming systems in Burkina Faso

This study aimed to describe and compare village chicken production in two farming systems in Burkina Faso. The systems were those in which crops and livestock production were, respectively, the most important. A rapid rural appraisal preceded a monitoring study in which data were collected fortnightly for 2 months. The study revealed that village chickens are used as sacrifices, gifts and objects of exchange for traditional medicine, or are sold for a little money under both systems. Chicken production is a free-range procedure in both farming systems, but there are differences in management. On average, the flock size was 33.5±3 birds, of which 57% were chicks. During the period of 2 months in the rainy season, the overall mortality was relatively low (8.8%±1.5) but mortality in chicks was high (31.7%). The main cause of financial loss in the village chickens was mortality, which represented up to 84% of the total exits. The hatching rate and mortality in young chicks differed significantly (p<0.05) between the two farming systems.

From Scaling to Governance of the Land System: Bridging Ecological and Economic Perspectives

One of the main unresolved problems in policy making is the step from scale issues to effective governance. What is appropriate for a lower level, such as a region or location, might be considered undesirable at a global scale. Linking scaling to governance is an important issue for the improvement of current environmental management and policies. Whereas social-ecological science tends to focus on adaptive behavior and aspects of spatial ecological data, new institutional economics focuses more on levels in institutional scales and temporal dimensions. Consequently, both disciplines perceive different scaling challenges while aiming at a similar improvement of effective governance. We propose that future research needs to focus on four themes: (1) How to combine spatial properties such as extent and grain with the economic units of market and agent; (2) How to combine the different governance instruments proposed by both perspectives; (3) How to communicate the different scaling perspectives (hierarchy vs. no hierarchy) and meanings to policy makers and other stakeholders; and (4) How to deal with the non- equilibrium conditions in the real world and the disciplinary perspectives. Here, we hypothesize that a combined system perspective of both disciplines will improve our understanding of the missing link between scaling and governance.

Fighting Fe deficiency malnutrition in West Africa : an interdisciplinary programme on a food chain approach

About 2 billion people, mainly women and young children, suffer from iron deficiency. The supply of iron (Fe) falls short when consumed foods have a low Fe content or when absorption of Fe is inhibited by the presence of phytic acid and polyphenols in the diet. Current interventions are dietary diversification, supplementation, fortification and biofortification. In West Africa these interventions have only moderate chances of success due to low purchasing power of households, lack of elementary logistics, lack of central processing of food and the high heterogeneity in production and consumption conditions. A staple food chain approach, integrating parts of current interventions was proposed as an alternative. The research was carried out in several villages in Benin and Burkina Faso to take ecological, cultural and socio-economic diversity into account. The interdisciplinary approach aimed at elaborating interventions in soil fertility management, improvement and choice of sorghum varieties and food processing, to increase Fe and decrease the phytic acid-Fe molar ratio in sorghum-based foods. The phytic acid-Fe molar ratio was used as a proxy for Fe bioavailability in food. Synergy and trade-offs resulting from the integrated approach showed its added value. P fertilization and soil organic amendments applied to increase yield were found to also increase phytic acid content of the grain and thus to decrease its nutritional value. Amounts of Fe and phytic acid and their ratio in the grain differed among sorghum varieties, illustrating the presence of genetic variation for Fe bioavailability. The current local food preparation method for one of the main sorghum-based foods (dibou) in northern Benin did not include processing steps that remove or de-activate anti-nutritional factors reducing Fe bioavailability. The preliminary results suggest that a feasible chain solution consists of breeding for high Fe and moderate phytic acid contents and using soil organic amendments and P fertilization to increase yields but that this needs to be followed by improved food processing to remove phytic acid. Further research on timing of application of phosphate, Fe fertilizer and soil organic amendments is needed to improve phytic acid-Fe molar ratios in the grain. Research on the exact distribution of Fe, phosphate, phytic acid and tannins within the sorghum grain is needed to enable the development of more effective combinations of food processing methods aiming for more favourable phytic acid-Fe molar ratios in sorghum-based food.

The novelty of simple and known technologies and the rhythm of farmer-centred innovation in family dairy farming in Brazil

Family dairy farming is under threat from the expansion of the sugarcane economy in south-eastern Brazil. This paper analyses an intervention programme which aimed to intensify dairy production and make family dairy farming sustainable in this competitive context. The case study of the ‘Balde Cheio’ Programme (Full Bucket) can be seen as an alternative method of knowledge generation to that of the dominant research approach which prioritizes cutting-edge technologies. This paper characterizes this farmer-oriented innovation programme for dairy farming systems, in which research, development and extension are seen as a long-term learning process. It analyses how the programme has been adapted to fit the diversity of situations found amongst farmers and to heterogeneous production conditions. The study relates the circulation of knowledge, the search for innovation by recombining apparently simple and known technologies, the use of experiments on the farm and the adaptation of the rhythm of innovation to the specific situation of the farm as the critical issues to achieve sustainable production systems.

Palm oil expansion in tropical forest margins or sustainability of production? Focal issues of regulations and private standards

Palm oil expansion captures headlines, primarily out of concern that encroachment to tropical forest causes environmental problem and ignites social issues. Cascading ecological and social issues cause loss of trust, (threats of) consumer boycotts and multiple standards and certification responses. However, diverse sustainability issues should be taken into account within the issue-attention cycle. Most of current production (89%) occurs in SE Asia, with Indonesia in the lead. Peru and Cameroon are examples of current expansion elsewhere. In Indonesia two phases of new establishment of palm oil coexist within a forest transition gradient: (i) (industry-led) expansion into new forest margins with many social and ecological consequences; and (ii) (often farmer-led) conversion of existing agroforestry and tree crop (often rubber-based) or pasture economies in mosaic landscapes. External consumer concerns refer to the expansion phase, rather than to production sustainability or issues of smallholder concern. However, certification standards are only partially adjusted to the latter. After a ‘voluntary industry standards’ phase of differentiation with and shifting blame to non-certified others, government involvement in Malaysia and Indonesia suggests that standards and certification can trickle down to enforceable good practice standards for all. This leads to ineffective policies that does not address the real issues in local context. On the other hand, subnational jurisdictional entities are the scale at which oil palm production can be balanced with other goals, such as forest conservation and smallholder welfare.

Where is sugarcane cropping expanding in the brazilian cerrado, and why? A case study

Sugarcane growing area in Brazil sharply expanded between 2000 and 2010 due to the increasing world demand for sugar and ethanol. Since this expansion of sugarcane is said to occur in areas covered by degraded pastures, it is likely not threatening the environment or food production. In order to verify this assumption, we investigate at farm and field levels which types of land use sugarcane cropping replaced between 2005 and 2010 and the reasons for farmers shifting or not shifting to sugarcane, as a case study in two counties in the state of Goiás. Within the studied period, sugarcane cropping expansion was related to large farms, lower risk perceived by farmers, and higher profitability compared with soybean and beef cattle-raising. For smallholders, particularly dairy farmers, the need to comply with the set-aside rules under Brazilian Forest Code (Código Florestal Brasileiro) made a shift to sugarcane less attractive, as it would have forced them to reduce farm cultivable area, with loss of incomes. From 30,408 ha under sugarcane surveyed, 45.7% had used to be pastures, 31% had previously been pastures rotated with soybean and maize, and 23.3% had been cropped exclusively with soybean or maize.

Costs and benefits of certification of independent oil palm smallholders in Indonesia

Sustainable certification schemes have surged in recent years. The introduction of these schemes poses serious challenges to smallholders. One such certification scheme is the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), which uses certification to increase equitable and sustainable production of palm oil. This study calculates upfront and recurrent costs and monetary benefits of RSPO certification for the Amanah Independent Oil Palm Smallholders Association in Ukui District, Indonesia. Survey and interview data was collected between 2013 and 2015. Results show that upfront costs of certification were 86 euro per hectare. Furthermore, despite generating up to 21% higher revenues from sales, certification created up to an 8% loss of net income per hectare on average per smallholder in the first year after certification, compared to the situation prior to certification. To motivate smallholders for RSPO certification, the economic performance of certified oil palm smallholders should be improved. This can res...

Can good Agricultural practices sustain oil palm yields for bioenergy production in northeast Thailand

The government of Thailand aims for sustainability of palm oil production in the Northeast for bioenergy and farmers’ income. This study investigated whether producers in Northeast Thailand managed their oil palm according to good agricultural practices (GAP) and if not, what effects this has on yield. A survey was conducted amongst 108 randomly selected farmers. For 25 selected plots, management and yields were monitored twice a month for two full years. Compliance to GAP was high for weeding, harvesting, pruning and pest and disease control but not for irrigation (40%) and fertiliser application (20–40%). GAP adoption scores per households positively correlated with income from other crops, tree age and degree of training. We showed that rainfall was insufficient for good oil palm growth between October and April. In the monitored group, use of irrigation and amounts of N, P, K and Mg applied were strongly correlated. The yield was significantly greater with irrigation and fertiliser, reaching similar levels as in the South of Thailand (up to 25–30 Mg Fresh Fruit Bunches: FFB ha −1 ), but did not differ with soil texture. This allows us to conclude that better application of GAP, especially including a combination of irrigation and fertilisers overcame the unsuitable soil and rainfall conditions in the Northeast of Thailand. However, the costs of fertilisers compared to the price of FFB affected the profitability of FFB production, which may affect farmers’ motivation to apply GAP, especially on unsuitable soils. When the government aims for sustainable palm oil production in the Northeast it needs to invest in frequent technical support, irrigation infrastructure and affordable fertilisers. Otherwise, farmers may not apply GAP because of low returns on investments and yields will remain very modest.