Malcolm Higgs

Emotional intelligence – A review and evaluation study

This article reviews the literature on the subject of “emotional intelligence” (EQ) and attempts to pin‐down and define this nebulous construct, using competency‐based and personality factor scales. In an exploratory study, the reliability and construct and predictive validity of three scales were investigated. An EQ scale based on 16 relevant competencies showed highly promising reliability and validity. The results also showed the relevance of two other competency‐based scales – intellectual intelligence (IQ) and managerial intelligence (MQ) – which both predicted organisational advancement. Taken together, however, the three scales had even higher validity. The overall results supported the view that EQ constructs can be measured more effectively by “performance analysis” than “classic paper and pencil tests”. In addition they provide support for the proposition that the combination of EQ and IQ is a more powerful predictor of “success” than either measure alone.

All changes great and small: Exploring approaches to change and its leadership

Abstract Although the growing need for change in organizations it is widely acknowledged it is asserted that up to 70% of change initiatives fail. While there have been attempts to understand the reasons for failure these have been seen as inconclusive, and a need for further empirical work has been identified. Within the growing literature on change leadership there are assertions that the root cause of many change problems is leadership behaviour. This article begins by exploring the change literature and, in particular the broadening of this literature with the inclusion of complexity and evolutionary theories. From the literature the authors propose a typology of change approach is proposed. In examining change the authors also examine emerging thoughts from the change leadership literature. Combining these different streams of literature leads to three core research questions, which are: (1)What approach to change management is likely to be most effective in todays business environment? (2)What leadership behaviours tend to be associated with effective change management? And (3)Are leadership behaviours related to the underlying assumptions within different approaches to change? These questions are explored using a case study methodology. The study involved seven organizations and 40 informants who provided 70 change stories. The data was initially analysed as qualitative data and subsequently (following participant lines of inquiry) quantitatively. Both qualitative and quantitative data indicated that change approaches that were based on assumptions of linearity, were unsuccessful, whereas those built on assumptions of complexity were more successful. Approaches classified as emergent change were found to be the most successful. In examining leadership behaviours three broad categories emerged: (1) shaping behaviour; (2) framing change; and (3) creating capacity. Analyses of the data indicated that leader-centric behaviours (shaping behaviour) impaired change implementation. The implications of the findings are discussed together with suggestions for further research.

Measuring emotional intelligence: content, construct and criterion‐related validity

Many authors claim there is a paucity of evidence for the validity of measures of emotional intelligence (EI). This paper summarises existing information on the reliability and validity of two measures of EI, the Dulewicz and Higgs EIQ and the Bar‐on EQ‐i. It also reports the results of a study on middle managers which investigated the degree to which these two EI instruments measure the same constructs: their concurrent/criterion‐related validity; and the relationship between EI and morale and stress at work. Correlations between the two instruments showed content and construct validity, with 16 out of the 20 hypothesised relationships between scales being significant. Correlations between various measures of morale and stress at work and EIQ demonstrated construct validity. Significant relationships were also found between EIQ and current job performance, thus providing further evidence of concurrent/criterion‐related validity.

Can emotional intelligence be measured and developed

Emotional intelligence (EI) is a topic of growing interest. This article describes the design of a new tailored instrument to measure emotional intelligence, which was piloted on 201 managers. Data are presented showing its high reliability and validity. In particular, construct validity is demonstrated using the 16PF, Belbin team roles, Myers‐Briggs type inventory and Type A behaviour. Seven elements (sub‐scales) make up the total questionnaire – self‐awareness; influence; decisive; interpersonal sensitivity; motivation; integrity; and resilience. These are defined in detail, and guidance is given on administration, and reporting which is done through an expert system. Advice on how the results can be used for personal development is also given. Finally, suggestions are put forward for further work on appropriate organisational cultures to reinforce emotional intelligence, and the issue of emotional intelligence and leadership.

How can we make sense of leadership in the 21st century

Explores the development of thinking on leadership and places it in the context of the dominant discourses of the period in which studies were conducted. Argues that if a “sense making” paradigm is adopted. it becomes feasible to identify a model of leadership, which is relevant to the context of complexity and change facing organisations in the early twenty‐first century. The model emerges when the measure of effectiveness is changed from organisational success to the impact of the leader on followers and on building of capability. The argument for such a shift is underpinned by the movement of dominant organisational logic from a Weberian rational/analytical one to a logic which acknowledges emotional considerations. Within the leadership arena it has been proposed that emotional intelligence is a major factor underpinning success. Presents data from recent research, which empirically demonstrates linkages between emotional intelligence and leadership. These findings are examined in conjunction with the “Emergent model”.

Can Emotional Intelligence be Developed

This paper explores approaches to the development of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and to the critical question ‘can EI be developed?’ Technical data on the instruments used to measure EI, the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ) devised by Dulewicz and Higgs (2000c) and the EQ-i designed by Bar-On (1997), are reported. Findings from three studies involving managers, team leaders and the skippers and crews from a round-the-world yacht race are presented to explore whether Emotional Intelligence scores change after training and other experiences. A revised model to explain how the elements of Emotional Intelligence are related to each other is presented and tested, and possible explanations of why some elements are more amenable to development actions are proposed.

Building change leadership capability: ‘The quest for change competence’

While the literature highlights the continuing, and indeed growing, significance of the challenge of implementing change effectively (eg Kotter, 1994; Carnall, 1999) and explores reasons for failures (eg Kotter, 1996) there seems to be little agreement on a way forward. The seeds for potential progress appear to lie within the examination of change competencies and the building of capability for managing significant and continuing change. This paper examines the literature relating to change competencies and capabilities and presents a case study which demonstrates how a competence-based approach has been applied in practice. The process of identifying critical competencies is explored, and a specific change competency framework is examined. In exploring the case, qualitative evidence is presented which suggests that the competency framework, and its application in practice, has had a real impact on the development of change capability in an organisation. This research is seen as being exploratory, however, and providing a stimulus for further research streams which are described towards the end of the paper. The paper concludes that it is focusing on what is involved in implementing change which will lead to a real understanding of the critical competencies required and of a means of building change capability with an organisation.

A study of the relationship between emotional intelligence and performance in UK call centres

Within business the organisational concept of call centres has developed rapidly. Within the UK the use and development of these centres has grown at a significant rate over the last decade. The economic benefits of this organisational concept have been threatened by the nature of the work and operating environment leading to high levels of attrition with associated recruitment, training and loss of productivity costs. As a result much effort has been focused on recruitment criteria and selection processes. In reviewing the criteria it is clear that many overlap with elements from within the concept of emotional intelligence (EI). This research note reports a study designed to explore the relationship between the EI of call centre agents (using the EIQ measure developed by Dulewicz and Higgs, and ratings of their performance. A sample of 289 agents from three organisations was studied. Results included a strong relationship between overall EI and individual performance, as well as between several EI elements from the model and performance. Furthermore, a relationship between age and performance was established along with a number of gender differences. The practical implications of these findings are discussed along with the study limitations. Further areas for research are identified including differences between agents in reaction and proactive roles and relationships to more direct measures of agent attrition.

An exploration of the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership potential

This research note explores the extent to which the claims for the importance of emotional intelligence as a predictor of leadership potential are borne out. The paper reports the results of an exploratory study of a leadership development centre in which participants also completed an established measure of emotional intelligence – the EIQ Managerial. The sample comprised 40 senior managers working within the New Zealand Public Service (NZPS). The results provide some evidence to support the relationships between EI and leadership potential asserted from both a theoretical standpoint and from other studies of leadership performance. The limitations of sample size are clearly identified. The results do however, indicate that further research using both larger and more diverse samples may be warranted.

The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: Leadership and Narcissism

Leadership is becoming increasingly recognized as a crucial issue for organizations facing change in a complex and volatile environment. This leads to a need for an understanding of the extensive leadership literature. However, it is notable that this literature is primarily focused on ‘good’ leadership. Until relatively recently it has ignored ‘bad’ or ‘dark-side’ leadership. Yet recent research in the field of change has provided evidence that such ‘negative’ leadership impacts adversely on change implementation. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to review the literature on ‘bad’ leadership and to explore the extent to which leader narcissism provides an explanation of ‘bad’ leadership behaviors. Building from this review the paper presents recommendations for future research.