Malcolm Horner

The argument against a reductionist approach for measuring sustainable development performance and the need for methodological pluralism

Abstract Both sustainability and sustainable development continue to remain elusive concepts even now, 20 years after the Brundtland Commission report that brought them into prominence. This situation most likely stems from the fact that sustainability science encompasses the need to address a wide set of issues over different time and spatial scales and thus inevitably accommodates opinions from diverse branches of knowledge and expertise. However, despite this multitude of perspectives, progress towards sustainability is usually assessed through the development and utilisation of single sustainability metrics such as monetary tools, composite sustainability indices and biophysical metrics including emergy, exergy and the ecological footprint. But is it really justifiable to assess the progress towards sustainability by using single metrics? This paper argues that such a choice seems increasingly unjustifiable not least due to these metrics’ methodological imperfections and limits. Additionally, our recent awareness of economies, societies and ecosystems as complex adaptive systems that cannot be fully captured through a single perspective further adds to the argument. Failure to describe these systems in a holistic manner through the synthesis of their different non-reducible and perfectly legitimate perspectives amounts to reductionism. An implication of the above is the fact that not a single sustainability metric at the moment can claim to comprehensively assess sustainability. In the light of these findings this paper proposes that the further elaboration and refinement of current metrics is unlikely to produce a framework for assessing the progress towards sustainability with a single metric. Adoption of a diverse set of metrics seems more likely to be the key for more robust sustainability assessments. This methodological pluralism coupled with stakeholder involvement seems to offer a better chance of improving the outcome of the decision making process.

Factors affecting housing maintenance cost

One of the findings of the research looking at the application of integrated logistics support (ILS) to the existing building stock carried out by the authors was that many factors have an effect on maintenance cost. In an attempt to uncover the underlying factors, a questionnaire survey was conducted among 50 local authority and housing associations throughout Scotland. The aim of the questionnaire was to identify the extent to which 24 factors impede the optimum application of maintenance cost. This paper describes the objectives of building maintenance and the principal elements of housing maintenance cost. The study revealed that maintenance cost is greatly influenced by factors which can only be evaluated subjectively, such as high expectations of tenants and improper use of the property.

Development of a generic framework for collecting whole life cost data for the building industry

Whole life costing analysis is becoming much more important as long‐term building owners and clients start to demand evidence of what their costs of ownership will be. It is also becoming more important as more private companies invest in private finance initiative (PFI), public private partnership (PPP) and prime contracting (PC) projects. One of the main barriers to the successful implementation of whole life costing (WLC), is the lack of reliable and consistent data on elements of whole life cost (capital, facilities management, and disposal) and the performance of building elements and services. The objective of this paper is to discuss the development of a consistent and flexible framework for collecting whole life cost data for buildings. A description of the taxonomy of the cost breakdown structure is given. The proposed data structure will be of value to all the project team (designer, contractor, facilities manager, supplier, etc.) who might be involved in traditional procurement or PFI, PPP, and PC projects. When the cost data structure is populated, it will provide the foundation from which the whole life costs of different alternatives can be estimated and from which the risks such as the technical and financial risks related to WLC elements, operational risks, etc. associated with, PFI, PPP and PC projects can be assessed and minimised.

Tools for selecting appropriate risk management techniques in the built environment

The built environment is full of uncertainty which leads to risk. The literature shows that there is a wide range of techniques available to deal with risk; however numerous studies have shown that only a relatively small number are used in practice. One reason for this small number is a lack of knowledge of the circumstances in which they can be used. With the aim of overcoming this lack of knowledge two decision support tools are developed, which assist in selecting appropriate cases. The first tool is a two‐dimensional matrix which provides a graphical output but has several limitations; the second is a case‐based reasoning (CBR) model. These tools have been built from literature examples of the application of risk techniques. A framework has been developed to assess the examples. It uses a PESTLE (Political, Economic, Social, Technical, Legal and Environmental) analysis to assess the problem characteristics. The associated data used in the problem were defined as fuzzy, incomplete or random. The results of the CBR validation demonstrated a tool that predicts the correct technique in excess of 80% of cases, and allows the matrix to be revised and refined.

Modelling the running costs of buildings

The Building Maintenance Cost Information Service (BMCIS) offers a comprehensive and rigorous framework for collecting data about the running costs of buildings. Nevertheless, it is pitched at such a level of detail that the amount of data collected and analysed may be constrained. This paper describes the deveopment and testing of a novel technique which reduces the amount of data to be collected without any unacceptable reduction in utility. It draws on the principle of cost-significance to create a simple model of maintenance and operating costs (together called running costs) from a rare and consistent set of data for 20 buildings at York University. The model contains only 11 elements, yet can predict the total running costs of each of four categories of building to an accuracy of about 21 2%. It can also predict annual costs to about 7%, despite variations in the periodicity of costs such as painting and insurance. The model was tested using the jacknife method and on virgin data. It proved to be extremely robust, predicting the running costs of 12 new buildings to within 5%. The model offers a simple framework for collecting and analysing reliable and consistent data on running costs.

Revisiting the applicability of learning curve theory to formwork labour productivity

The learning phenomenon has proved applicable in various industries, especially those associated with mass productions, such as aircraft and automobile assembly. The learning process in labour‐intensive industries is assumed to be more significant in the sense that automated work is constrained by the fact that machines cannot benefit from previous experience and therefore would not ‘learn’ to run any faster or increase the rate of production. Several previous investigations into the applicability of learning curve theory to the construction industry proved the importance of this concept to labour productivity. Nevertheless, a thorough examination of the literature revealed a dearth of research into the effect of learning on the formwork operation of building floors. Consequently, the objective of this research is to explore the influence of recurring building floor configurations on formwork labour productivity. To achieve this objective, formwork labour inputs from 45 multi‐storey in situ reinforced concrete building frames were collected and analysed using the straight‐line learning curve model. The cumulative average input for each cycle, i.e. floor, and its associated cycle number were modelled using the least squares method. According to the learning curve theory, we expect the labour inputs to decrease by a certain percentage, as the cycle number increases. Based on the results obtained, there is very little evidence for that.

Characteristic items - a new approach to pricing and controlling construction projects

Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility of identifying within any category of project, a small number of cost-significant work packages whose value represents a consistently high proportion of the total bill value. Using the allied principle of quantity-significance, it proved possible to build simple models which could predict both the cost and the duration of a project. In the course of that work, a surprisingly linear relationship between value and quantity was noted. This paper reports the background to and consequences of that finding. Quantity-significant work packages are formed by aggregating those items within a trade for which a linear regression of value against quantity yields a correlation coefficient greater than 0.99 and an intercept insignificantly different from zero. The price of packages formed in this way can be determined simply by applying to all the items within the package the rate associated with the largest quantity, the so-called ‘characteristic item’. Application of th...

Practical application of RCM to local authority housing: a pilot study

This paper presents part of an EPSRC research project carried out by the Construction Management Research Unit at Dundee University. The objective of the research was to apply integrated logistics support, to the development of cost‐effective maintenance strategies for existing building stock. Techniques such as failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) and reliability centred maintenance (RCM) were tailored for application to construction projects and a pilot study was carried out on a sample of 18 houses drawn from Dundee City Council housing stock. A comparative analysis of condition survey, FMEA and RCM is provided. The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the benefits of applying RCM to existing building stock. The pilot study shows that the use of RCM can lead to a reduction of 18.5 per cent in maintenance costs.

CSI model for estimating road maintenance projects

Major road maintenance projects need an accurate cost estimate at the early stage of design. At present, simple and quick models are lacking. Two easy‐to‐use cost models for major asphalt road maintenance projects are developed. The double mean model and the trend line model are based on the cost‐significance method. The historical data used are bills of quantities (BoQs) of major road maintenance projects including reconstruction, overlay and resurfacing. The cost‐significant items in the models are consistent for this type of project. Further BoQs are used to test the accuracy of the cost‐significance models. The two cost‐significance models simplify the data collection and cost modelling process. The double mean model is suitable for quick estimates at scheme design stage, while the trend line model has a much better accuracy and is still simpler than traditional methods, and is therefore appropriate to use for the detailed design stage. Because there are fewer items whose costs require estimating, it is likely that the cost of each item can be estimated more accurately.

Construction Law: An Introduction for Engineers, Architects, and Contractors

Construction law is one of the most difficult subjects to teach without boring the pants off the audience. It attracts adjectives like ‘dry’, ‘dull’, ‘lifeless’, and is well known for sending audiences to sleep. Books about construction law can be even worse, suffering in addition from the use of ‘legalese’, a language that even lawyers can find difficult to interpret. This book is a brilliant exception. It is simply and engagingly written, yet addresses all the common issues masterfully and comprehensively. Its readability is due in part to the widespread use of brief case studies, in part to its carefully designed structure, and in part, and probably most importantly, to the expertise of the author both in matters legal and in the use of the English language. Its simplicity is even more remarkable since Ms Kelly has to wrestle not with just one judicial system, but with the judicial systems of all 50 States of America. And there of course, lies the rub. This book deals with American construction law, which the casual observer might think irrelevant to practice elsewhere. But this would be a wrong assumption, at least in the case of British practice. Surprisingly, it turns out that there is little difference between American and British construction law. Both are based on the principle of common law and of precedent. Both distinguish between contract law and the law of tort. Both are embedded in so-called ‘standard conditions of contract’. Indeed, were students to answer a British degree examination on the basis of the contents of this book, they could still achieve first class honours. Of course, there are some differences, but these are generally in the terminology: the use of ‘shop drawings’ for ‘detailed drawings’, ‘retainage’ for ‘retention’ (which, incidentally is generally higher than in the UK, and paid in its entirety on substantial completion), ‘correction’ or ‘call back period’ for ‘defects liability period’ and so on. The principles of contract formation, interpretation, subcontractors’ roles, time for performance, contract administration, payment process, dealing with changes, claims and their quantification and dispute resolution are essentially the same on both sides of the Atlantic. But this book is more than a book about construction law. It provides an excellent introduction to the construction process, covering the roles of the main players, alternative procurement routes, the design and construction processes and contract administration. It is therefore both an excellent primer for students of the construction industry, and a valuable reference book for practising professionals. That its author is qualified in both engineering and law shines through in every section, and is further vindication of the power of this combination of areas of expertise. I would be happy to see this book adopted as a standard text in British university construction-related degree courses, and recommend it to the profession at large as a stimulating, enjoyable and valuable read.