Małgorzata Rutkowska

Organotin Compounds: Environmental Fate and Analytics

For more than 50 years, organotin compounds have been used in almost all sectors of industry. As a consequence, specific parts of the environment are affected by the emission of these xenobiotics. The emissions of organotin compounds into the environment from paints used in the shipbuilding industry for ship hull coating and from plant protection products are particularly significant. In 2001, the IMO introduced a global ban on the use of organotins in antifouling systems. However, despite the introduction of laws restricting the production and application of organotin compounds, these contaminants still pose a threat to the environment. Organotin compounds have a very negative effect on live organisms, therefore monitoring different parts of the environment for their presence is extremely important. Sampling and determination of organotin levels is a complex process that requires several analytical activities such as the collection, transport, and storage of samples, extraction of analytes from biological samples, derivatization, purification, and the final determination. Most techniques used for analyzing organotin compounds are based on gas chromatography, although recently some modified liquid chromatography methods and capillary electrophoresis have also been applied. In this study the literature information on the following topics is presented: toxicity, environmental fate, and analytical methods used for determining organotin compounds in environmental samples.

Microextraction Techniques Used in the Procedures for Determining Organomercury and Organotin Compounds in Environmental Samples

Due to human activities, the concentrations of organometallic compounds in all parts of the environment have increased in recent decades. The toxicity and some biochemical properties of mercury and tin present in the environment depend on the concentration and chemical form of these two elements. The ever-increasing demand for determining compounds at very low concentration levels in samples with complex matrices requires the elimination of interfering substances, the reduction of the final extract volume, and analyte enrichment in order to employ a detection technique, which is characterised by high sensitivity at low limits of quantification. On the other hand, in accordance with current trends, the analytical procedures should aim at the miniaturisation and simplification of the sample preparation step. In the near future, more importance will be given to the fulfilment of the requirements of Green Chemistry and Green Analytical Chemistry in order to reduce the intensity of anthropogenic activities related to analytical laboratories. In this case, one can consider the use of solvent-free/solvent-less techniques for sample preparation and microextraction techniques, because the use of the latter leads to lowering the quantity of reagents used (including solvents) due to the reduction of the scale of analysis. This paper presents an overview of microextraction techniques (SPME and LPME) used in the procedures for determining different chemical forms of mercury and tin.

Organomercury Compounds in Environmental Samples: Emission Sources, Toxicity, Environmental Fate, and Determination

In view of the specific properties of mercury and its capability of forming compounds that can be bioaccumulated and biomagnified at successive levels of the trophic pyramid, it has become necessary to gather detailed information on the sources of emission of this element into the environment and its fate there. Moreover, the increasing awareness of the relationship between the toxicity of mercury and its chemical form has sharpened interest in the identification of its various forms in environmental samples. Investigating the speciation of mercury has therefore become of major importance with respect not only to determining its biogeochemical cycle but also to assessing the scale of this analytical challenge, given the need to design the appropriate analytical methodologies and reference materials that will constitute the tools for obtaining reliable analytical information.

Determination of Selected Metals in Fruit Wines by Spectroscopic Techniques

Background The determination of metals in different types of food and beverages samples has drawn significant attention due to several reasons with the most important one being the nutritional and toxic effects of these elements or their compounds. The knowledge of certain elements content in wines/fruit wines is of special interest due to their toxicity in case of excessive intake and also the effect they seem to have on the organoleptic properties of wine. Results The study was focused on measuring the concentration levels of trace metals in fruit wines. Analysis of K, Ca, Fe, Zn, Cd, Mg, Pb, Sn, and Hg in so-called homemade fruit wine was carried out by AES, AAS, CV-AAS, and GF-AAS techniques. The calculated calibration curves showed good linearity range for all tested analytes (with coefficient of determination in the range from 0.989 to 0.999). The low values of the limit of detection (from 0.0031 μg/L to 0.47 mg/L) and the limit of quantification (from 0.009 μg/L to 1.41 mg/L) were obtained. Conclusions The allowed levels of metal in fruit wines are prescribed by the International Office for Grapes and Wines (OIV). The data obtained from the study area for all metals did not exceed the international limits.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction

Abstract The use of green and sustainable extraction techniques is very popular topic in the multidisciplinary area of chemistry, biology, and technology. There is no doubt that extraction constitutes a very important step of analytical procedures of separation, detection, identification, and determination of wide spectrum analytes from samples characterized by complex and very often nonhomogeneous composition of matrix. Traditional techniques used for the solvent extraction of target compounds can be characterized by longer extraction time and lower extraction yield, use of large amount of toxic, organic solvents, and poor extraction efficiency. Nowadays, use of green extraction techniques is becoming more and more popular and widespread. In this chapter, information on ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) technique as an environmental-friendly and economically viable alternative to conventional extraction techniques are presented. It also provides the necessary theoretical background about mechanism, recommendations for optimum operating conditions for maximizing the extraction yield, and the possibility of coupling UAE with other analytical techniques. An overview of different applications of UAE has also been presented.