Malte C. Gather

Efficiency Roll‐Off in Organic Light‐Emitting Diodes

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) have attracted much attention in research and industry thanks to their capability to emit light with high efficiency and to deliver high-quality white light that provides good color rendering. OLEDs feature homogeneous large area emission and can be produced on flexible substrates. In terms of efficiency, OLEDs can compete with highly efficient conventional light sources but their efficiency typically decreases at high brightness levels, an effect known as efficiency roll-off. In recent years, much effort has been undertaken to understand the underlying processes and to develop methods that improve the high-brightness performance of OLEDs. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge and provide a detailed description of the relevant principles, both for phosphorescent and fluorescent emitter molecules. In particular, we focus on exciton-quenching mechanisms, such as triplet-triplet annihilation, quenching by polarons, or field-induced quenching, but also discuss mechanisms such as changes in charge carrier balance. We further review methods that may reduce the roll-off and thus enable OLEDs to be used in high-brightness applications.

Color in the Corners: ITO‐Free White OLEDs with Angular Color Stability

High-efficiency white OLEDs fabricated on silver nanowire-based composite transparent electrodes show almost perfectly Lambertian emission and superior angular color stability, imparted by electrode light scattering. The OLED efficiencies are comparable to those fabricated using indium tin oxide. The transparent electrodes are fully solution-processable, thin-film compatible, and have a figure of merit suitable for large-area devices.

Nano-particle based scattering layers for optical efficiency enhancement of organic light-emitting diodes and organic solar cells

The performance of both organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and organic solar cells (OSC) depends on efficient coupling between optical far field modes and the emitting/absorbing region of the device. Current approaches towards OLEDs with efficient light-extraction often are limited to single-color emission or require expensive, non-standard substrates or top-down structuring, which reduces compatibility with large-area light sources. Here, we report on integrating solution-processed nano-particle based light-scattering films close to the active region of organic semiconductor devices. In OLEDs, these films efficiently extract light that would otherwise remain trapped in the device. Without additional external outcoupling structures, translucent white OLEDs containing these scattering films achieve luminous efficacies of 46 lm W−1 and external quantum efficiencies of 33% (both at 1000 cd m−2). These are by far the highest numbers ever reported for translucent white OLEDs and the best values in the open ...

Comparing the emissive dipole orientation of two similar phosphorescent green emitter molecules in highly efficient organic light-emitting diodes

We investigate the average orientation of the transition dipole moments of two green phosphorescent emitters Ir(ppy)3 and Ir(ppy)2(acac) embedded in a CBP matrix, using in-situ angle resolved electroluminescence spectroscopy and optical simulations. The dipole orientation of Ir(ppy)3 is nearly isotropic while 77% of the dipoles are horizontally aligned for Ir(ppy)2(acac). Optimized organic light-emitting diodes based on these emitters achieve external quantum efficiencies of 18.3% (Ir(ppy)3) and 21.7% (Ir(ppy)2(acac)). This difference is partially explained by the different dipole orientations.

Photoprogrammable Organic Light-Emitting Diodes

Enlightening the memory: The integration of a crosslinkable photochromic dithienylperfluorocyclopentene (DTE) into organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) allows for the individualization of the emissive area of the OLED device, for example, for signage applications. The operation principle is based on switching the injection barrier for holes (positive charge carriers). Very large ON/OFF ratios of up to 3000 for current as well as electroluminescence have been achieved.

Recent advances in light outcoupling from white organic light-emitting diodes

Abstract. Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) have been successfully introduced to the smartphone display market and have geared up to become contenders for applications in general illumination where they promise to combine efficient generation of white light with excellent color quality, glare-free illumination, and highly attractive designs. Device efficiency is the key requirement for such white OLEDs, not only from a sustainability perspective, but also because at the high brightness required for general illumination, losses lead to heating and may, thus, cause rapid device degradation. The efficiency of white OLEDs increased tremendously over the past two decades, and internal charge-to-photon conversion can now be achieved at ∼100% yield. However, the extraction of photons remains rather inefficient (typically <30%). Here, we provide an introduction to the underlying physics of outcoupling in white OLEDs and review recent progress toward making light extraction more efficient. We describe how structures that scatter, refract, or diffract light can be attached to the outside of white OLEDs (external outcoupling) or can be integrated close to the active layers of the device (internal outcoupling). Moreover, the prospects of using top-emitting metal–metal microcavity designs for white OLEDs and of tuning the average orientation of the emissive molecules within the OLED are discussed.

Lasing within Live Cells Containing Intracellular Optical Microresonators for Barcode-Type Cell Tagging and Tracking.

We report on a laser that is fully embedded within a single live cell. By harnessing natural endocytosis of the cell, we introduce a fluorescent whispering gallery mode (WGM) microresonator into the cell cytoplasm. On pumping with nanojoule light pulses, green laser emission is generated inside the cells. Our approach can be applied to different cell types, and cells with microresonators remain viable for weeks under standard conditions. The characteristics of the lasing spectrum provide each cell with a barcode-type label which enables uniquely identifying and tracking individual migrating cells. Self-sustained lasing from cells paves the way to new forms of cell tracking, intracellular sensing, and adaptive imaging.

All‐Biomaterial Laser Using Vitamin and Biopolymers

Lasers based on biomaterials known as Generally-Recognized-As-Safe (GRAS) substances approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are demonstrated. Vitamin B2-doped microdroplet lasers are generated and trapped on a super-hydrophobic poly-L-lactic acid substrate. The spheres support whispering gallery mode lasing at optical pump energies as low as 15 nJ per pulse (≈1 kW/mm2).

Bioabsorbable polymer optical waveguides for deep-tissue photomedicine.

Advances in photonics have stimulated significant progress in medicine, with many techniques now in routine clinical use. However, the finite depth of light penetration in tissue is a serious constraint to clinical utility. Here we show implantable light-delivery devices made of bio-derived or biocompatible, and biodegradable polymers. In contrast to conventional optical fibres, which must be removed from the body soon after use, the biodegradable and biocompatible waveguides may be used for long-term light delivery and need not be removed as they are gradually resorbed by the tissue. As proof of concept, we demonstrate this paradigm-shifting approach for photochemical tissue bonding (PTB). Using comb-shaped planar waveguides, we achieve a full thickness (>10 mm) wound closure of porcine skin, which represents ∼10-fold extension of the tissue area achieved with conventional PTB. The results point to a new direction in photomedicine for using light in deep tissues.

Monodisperse conjugated polymer particles by Suzuki–Miyaura dispersion polymerization

The self-assembly of colloidal building blocks into complex and hierarchical structures offers a versatile and powerful toolbox for the creation of new photonic and optoelectronic materials. However, well-defined and monodisperse colloids of semiconducting polymers, which would form excellent building blocks for such self-assembled materials, are not readily available. Here we report the first demonstration of a Suzuki-Miyaura dispersion polymerization; this method produces highly monodisperse submicrometer particles of a variety of semiconducting polymers. Moreover, we show that these monodisperse particles readily self-assemble into photonic crystals that exhibit a pronounced photonic stopgap.