Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries

Narcissism and Leadership: An Object Relations Perspective

Having been largely unknown as a clinical entity, the narcissistic personality has recently come into the limelight. It is argued that one critical component in the orientation of leaders is the quality and intensity of their narcissistic development. In this paper, the relationship between narcissism and leadership is explored. Using concepts taken from psychoanalytic object relations theory, three narcissistic configurations found among leaders are presented: reactive, self-deceptive, and constructive. Their etiology, symptomatology, and defensive structure is discussed. The influence of each configuration on interpersonal relations and decision-making is examined in a managerial context.

The Anatomy of the Entrepreneur: Clinical Observations

In psychoanalytic theory, studies of work behavior have been relatively scarce. Most of the existing literature concerns itself with cases of work inhibition or compulsion. Occasionally, one finds a discussion of people in the creative professions. No attention has been paid, however, to a major contributor to economic development in society, the entrepreneur. This contrasts sharply with the amount of attention given to entrepreneurs by other disciplines. The object of this study is to better understand the dynamics of entrepreneurship, and in particular the work behavior of entrepreneurs. First, there is a brief overview of the role of work in psychoanalytic theory. Then a number of factors important to entrepreneurship are reviewed from the perspective of economic, sociological, anthropological, psychological, and organizational theory. A case history is presented of one entrepreneur who chose to be treated through psychoanalysis. The intensity of this type of treatment means that continuity in observat...

Creating Authentizotic Organizations: Well-Functioning Individuals in Vibrant Companies

When we look forward to the new millennium there are many themes in the world of work that are disquieting. A major preoccupation will be stress in the work place. Statistics about illness, under-performance, and absenteeism tell a dramatic tale of dysfunctionality at work. In many organizations, the balance between working life and private life has been completely lost. Horror stories of how dysfunctional leadership, work overload, conflicting job demands, poor communication, lack of opportunities for career advancement, inequities in performance evaluations and pay, restrictions on behavior, and excessive travel lead to depressive reactions, alcoholism, drug abuse, and sleep disorders abound. Work, however, does not necessarily need to be stressful. On the contrary, work can be an anchor of psychological well-being, a way of establishing identity and maintaining self-esteem. Sigmund Freud’s dictum about mental health as consisting of lieben und arbeiten (love and work) retains a ring of truth. Organizations are invested with a considerable amount of psychological meaning. Accomplishing something tangible through work can give a dose of stability in a highly unstable world. Organizations are ideal outlets to help their participants cope with the stresses and strains of daily life. Given the importance of individual psychological well-being for organizational functioning, a major item that should be on everybody’s agenda in the new millennium is to create work places that are healthy –

High-performance teams: Lessons from the pygmies

The purpose of this article is to describe best practices for effective work teams. Taking the behavior of the pygmies of the African rain forest as a primary model of human behavior, the article will offer a number of suggestions for creating successful teams. Attention will also be given to some of the factors that can destroy teamwork. Finally, some of the themes relevant to high-performance organizations will be

The Organizational Fool: Balancing a Leader's Hubris

This paper explores the role of the sage-fool as means of creating a counter-vailing power against the regressive forces inherent in leadership, in other words, to reinforce the leaders capacity for reality testing. After a brief review of leadership theories, some of the salient characteristics of the role of the sage-fool are reviewed, taking a historical perspective. It is subsequently demonstrated how the fool, in playing the role of mediator between leader and followers, brings to the surface certain conflictual themes and thereby allows both parties to deal with the issues at hand. In this context, the role of humor and joking relationships are examined. Finally, two case examples of the fool in an organizational setting are presented.This paper explores the role of the sage-fool as means of creating a counter-vailing power against the regressive forces inherent in leadership, in other words, to reinforce the leaders capacity for reality testing. After a brief review of leadership theories, some of the salient characteristics of the role of the sage-fool are reviewed, taking a historical perspective. It is subsequently demonstrated how the fool, in playing the role of mediator between leader and followers, brings to the surface certain conflictual themes and thereby allows both parties to deal with the issues at hand. In this context, the role of humor and joking relationships are examined. Finally, two case examples of the fool in an organizational setting are presented.

Transforming the Mind-Set of the Organization: A Clinical Perspective

In this article the processes of individual and organizational change—their characteristics and dynamics—are explored, and resemblances between personal and organizational change are highlighted using a clinical orientation. Factors such as a period of distress, a crystallization of discontent, a focal event, and a public declaration of intent are shown to play a role in both individual and organizational change. The process of working through the loss associated with change—a process that is made up of a number of predictable stages: shock, disbelief, discarding, and realization—is outlined. Social support, locus of control, and hardiness are introduced as factors facilitating the change process. Finally, a case study showcasing a company that experienced a dramatic transformation is presented to highlight some of the critical change variables and to show how top management can use many of the levers that make for a successful transformation and change program.

The spirit of despotism: Understanding the tyrant within

The objective of this article is to better understand the developmental history of despotic regimes and the existence of leadership by terror. To gain greater insight into this phenomenon, the unusual relationship between leaders and followers in despotic regimes is explored, and the self-destructive cycle that characterizes such regimes is examined. The price paid in the form of human suffering and the breakdown of the moral fabric of a society is highlighted. In this article, particular attention is paid to highly intrusive totalitarian regimes. The levers used by such regimes to consolidate their power base are discussed in detail. The role of ideology, the enforcement of mind-control, the impact of the media, the inception of the illusion of solidarity, and the search for scapegoats are part of the review. Finally, suggestions are made on how to prevent despotic leaders from gaining a hold on power. Observations are made about the newly founded International Criminal Court, a permanent international judicial body that has been specially set up to try despotic rulers for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.The objective of this article is to better understand the developmental history of despotic regimes and the existence of leadership by terror. To gain greater insight into this phenomenon, the unusual relationship between leaders and followers in despotic regimes is explored, and the self-destructive cycle that characterizes such regimes is examined. The price paid in the form of human suffering and the breakdown of the moral fabric of a society is highlighted. In this article, particular attention is paid to highly intrusive totalitarian regimes. The levers used by such regimes to consolidate their power base are discussed in detail. The role of ideology, the enforcement of mind-control, the impact of the media, the inception of the illusion of solidarity, and the search for scapegoats are part of the review. Finally, suggestions are made on how to prevent despotic leaders from gaining a hold on power. Observations are made about the newly founded International Criminal Court, a permanent international j...

The Leader as Mirror: Clinical Reflections

Starting with a literary example, the nature of “mirroring” is reviewed in the context of human development and linked to leader-follower interaction patterns. It is argued that mirroring is needed for establishing and maintaining the boundaries of the self. Depending on the nature and quality of the developmental interface distortive mirroring patterns may come to the fore. Using a case example, it will be demonstrated how, particularly in situations of crisis, leaders can easily turn into mirrors reflecting what we wish to see. This can create an illusory form of reality and in the process endangers the organization.Starting with a literary example, the nature of “mirroring” is reviewed in the context of human development and linked to leader-follower interaction patterns. It is argued that mirroring is needed for establishing and maintaining the boundaries of the self. Depending on the nature and quality of the developmental interface distortive mirroring patterns may come to the fore. Using a case example, it will be demonstrated how, particularly in situations of crisis, leaders can easily turn into mirrors reflecting what we wish to see. This can create an illusory form of reality and in the process endangers the organization.

Alexithymia in Organizational Life: The Organization Man Revisited

In this article, the organization man is looked at from a different perspective within the context of a relatively recent clinical construct called alexithymia. Alexithymia, meaning literally no words for moods, is basically a communication disorder. The construct has been introduced in psychiatry and medical psychology because of a consistent body of clinical and phenomenological observations relating to a particular way of interacting emotionally. More specifically, it refers to individuals with an extreme reality-based cognitive style, an impoverished fantasy life, a paucity of inner emotional experiences, a tendency to enagage in stereotypical interpersonal behavior, and a speech pattern characterized by endless, trivial, repetitive details. As a clinical syndrome, integrating and telescoping co-variant characteristics, it alerts the clinician to a cluster of otherwise most likely unobserved but frequently related cognitive and affective patterns. Alexithymia as a clinical construct also helps us bett...In this article, the organization man is looked at from a different perspective within the context of a relatively recent clinical construct called alexithymia. Alexithymia, meaning literally no words for moods, is basically a communication disorder. The construct has been introduced in psychiatry and medical psychology because of a consistent body of clinical and phenomenological observations relating to a particular way of interacting emotionally. More specifically, it refers to individuals with an extreme reality-based cognitive style, an impoverished fantasy life, a paucity of inner emotional experiences, a tendency to enagage in stereotypical interpersonal behavior, and a speech pattern characterized by endless, trivial, repetitive details. As a clinical syndrome, integrating and telescoping co-variant characteristics, it alerts the clinician to a cluster of otherwise most likely unobserved but frequently related cognitive and affective patterns. Alexithymia as a clinical construct also helps us better understand the relationship between early bodily experiences, how via the route of mental representation of thoughts and feelings a vocabulary for emotions develops. It is hypothesized that there is an interesting parallel between the organization man and those people with an alexithymic disposition. It is postulated that certain types of organizations, e.g., compulsive and depressive, not only legitimize but also foster this type of behavior. In addition, we suggest that certain management styles, e.g., the detached CEO, the systems person, and the social sensor, are characterized by alexithymic patterns. In conclusion, a few propositions are made for ways of dealing with the negative repercussions of the alexithymic executive.

Development and Application of the Leadership Archetype Questionnaire

The Leadership Assessment Questionnaire (LAQ) is a 360-degree survey instrument designed to help organizational leaders identify their own style of leadership and formulate appropriate development objectives. It is designed to provide a means for developing an executive team in which multiple leadership archetypes are represented. The LAQ is based on eight leadership archetypes-Strategist, Change-catalyst, Transactor, Builder, Innovator, Processor, Coach, and Communicator. These archetypes are representations of ways of leading in a complex organizational environment. In this article we discuss the development, design, and psychometric analysis of the LAQ. We detail the conceptual foundations of the questionnaire and the psychometric methods used to confirm the validity and reliability of the instrument. We conclude with avenues for future research.