Mani R. Subramani

Safeguarding Investments in Asymmetric Interorganizational Relationships: Theory and Evidence

We model the governance strategies adopted by suppliers to safeguard relationship-specific investments in asymmetric interoganizational relationships using two dimensions: quasi integration and joi...

Knowledge-sharing and influence in online social networks via viral marketing

Online social networks are increasingly being recognized as an important source of information influencing the adoption and use of products and services. Viral marketing—the tactic of creating a process where interested people can market to each other—is therefore emerging as an important means to spread-the-word and stimulate the trial, adoption, and use of products and services. Consider the case of Hotmail, one of the earliest firms to tap the potential of viral marketing. Based predominantly on publicity from word-of-mouse [4], the Web-based email service provider garnered one million registered subscribers in its first six months, hit two million subscribers two months later, and passed the eleven million mark in eighteen months [7]. Wired magazine put this growth in perspective in its December 1998 issue: “The Hotmail user base grew faster than [that of ] any media company in history—faster than CNN, faster than AOL, even faster than Seinfeld’s audience. By mid-2000, Hotmail had over 66 million users with 270,000 new accounts being established each day.” While the potential of viral marketing to efficiently reach out to a broad set of potential users is attracting considerable attention, the value of this approach is also being questioned [5]. There needs to be a greater understanding of the contexts in which this strategy works and the characteristics of products and services for which it is most effective. This is particularly important because the inappropriate use of viral marketing can be counterproductive by creating unfavorable attitudes towards products. Work examining this phenomenon currently provides either descriptive accounts of particular initiatives [8] or advice based on anecdotal evidence [2]. What is missing is an analysis of viral marketing that highlights systematic patterns in the nature of knowledge-sharing and persuasion by influencers and responses by recipients in online social networks. To this end, we propose an organizing framework for viral marketing that draws on prior theory and highlights different behavioral mechanisms underlying knowledge-sharing, influence, and compliance in online social networks. Though the framework is descrip-

Situated Learning and the Situated Knowledge Web: Exploring the Ground Beneath Knowledge Management

Knowledge is now recognized as an important basis for competitive advantage and many firms are beginning to establish initiatives to leverage and manage organizational knowledge. These include efforts to codify knowledge in repositories as well as efforts to link individuals using information technologies to overcome geographic and temporal barriers to accessing knowledge and expertise. We suggest that Knowledge Management (KM) efforts, to be successful, need to be sensitive to features of the context of generation, location, and application of knowledge. To this end, we highlight the situated organizational learning perspective that views knowledge as embedded in individuals, in connections between individuals, and in artifacts as a useful lens to examine phenomena related to the establishment of KM initiatives. In an ethnographic case study of an effort to change knowledge-work processes in a market research firm, we apply the situated knowledge perspective to highlight the factors responsible for the limited success of the initiative in the firm. This study suggests that a consideration of the situated knowledge web and the alignment of the initiatives with the features of the knowledge web are central to success in knowledge management efforts in firms.

The Matrix of Control: Combining Process and Structure Approaches to Managing Software Development

The performance of firms in the software industry depends considerably on the quality of their software development processes. Managing software development is a challenging task, as management controls need to impose discipline and coordinate action to ensure goals are met while simultaneously incorporating autonomy to motivate software developers to be innovative and produce quality work. How should such firms manage software development projects so that their development processes are flexible and predictable--resulting in products that meet quality goals and that are delivered within budget and on time? The management literature suggests two approaches to control: the process approach and the structure approach. The process approach recommends control of activities through specifying methods (behavior control) and through specifying performance criteria (outcome control). In contrast, the structure approach recommends control through centrally devised standards for activities (standardization) and by the delegation of authority for decision-making (decentralization). This study synthesizes these two approaches to suggest that formal managerial control is exerted through a matrix of control comprising four modes: standardization of methods, standardization of performance criteria, decentralization of methods, and decentralization of performance criteria. We test the association of the modes of control with performance in a sample of 56 firms in the software industry in the United States. The results suggest that performance is enhanced by establishing uniform performance criteria across projects (standardization of performance criteria) while giving each project team the authority to make decisions with respect to methods (decentralization of methods). However, standardization of methods across all projects and decentralization of performance criteria by delegating the authority to make decisions about performance criteria to project teams were both not significantly related to performance. The matrix of control and its relationship to performance has theoretical and practical implications for managing software development. This model of control is also likely to be useful in other knowledge-work-intensive settings.

Contributing to Public Document Repositories: A Critical Mass Theory Perspective

Public document repositories (PDRs) are valuable resources available on the Internet and are a component of the broader information commons freely accessible to the public. Instances of PDRs include the repository of reviews at Amazon.com and the online encyclopedia at Wikipedia. These repositories are created and sustained by the voluntary contributions of individuals who are not compensated for their inputs. This paper draws on and extends critical mass theory in the context of PDRs. Using data on the reviews written by prolific reviewers at Amazon.com and the text of their personal profiles, we find the critical mass of contributors at the PDR not only to be prolific and contributing high-quality reviews, but also to be among the earliest contributors of reviews on products. Reviewer profiles revealed the presence of multiple self-oriented motives (self expression, personal development, utilitarian motives, and enjoyment) and other-oriented motives (social affiliation, altruism, and reciprocity) for contribution. We find that the quality and quantity of contributions are inversely related and the motives for quantity of contribution are different from those related to the quality of contribution. The study highlights that PDRs are viewed by contributors as social contexts even though making contributions is an individual act that does not involve social interaction.

The effect of virtuality on individual network centrality and performance in on-going, distributed teams

For distributed teams to succeed, individuals must interact successfully within team social networks. To understand individual performance in distributed teams, we consider a multi-dimensional view of individual virtuality and its relationship with centrality in the team’s face-to-face network and ICT network. We leverage social network theory and hierarchically analyse data from 254 individuals in 18 teams. We find that members with higher dispersion are less central in the face-to-face network while those with higher ICT use are more central in the ICT network. Centrality in the ICT network, but not centrality in the face-to-face network, is positively related to performance. The results provide insights for academics and practitioners on how to improve individual performance in distributed teams.

Geography of online network ties: A predictive modelling approach

Abstract Internet platforms are increasingly enabling individuals to access and interact with a wider, globally dispersed group of peers. The promise of these platforms is that the geographic distance is no longer a barrier to forming network ties. However, whether these platforms truly alleviate the influence of geographic distance remains unexplored. In this study, we examine the role of geographic distance with machine learning approach using a unique dataset of the network ties between traders in an online social trading platform. Specifically, we determine the extent to which, compared to other types of distances, geographic distance predicts the occurrences of the network ties in country dyads. Using cluster analysis and predictive modelling, we show that not only the geographic distance and network ties exhibit an inverse association but also that geographic distance is the strongest predictor of such ties.

The Influence of Project Ambiguity and Help Seeking on Project Performance in Knowledge Process Outsourcing Project Teams

This research examines the relationship between different help seeking patterns and project performance in offshore teams working on outsourced knowledge intensive projects. We synthesize the literature on help seeking to compare the effectiveness of four commonly recognized patterns of help seeking: the direct-leader pattern, the direct-internal pattern, the direct-external pattern and the indirect-external pattern. We propose that project ambiguity, i.e., the degree to which a project cannot be fully specified upfront, moderates how these different patterns influence project performance. Empirical analysis of data from members of 45 design teams supports this argument, suggesting that ambiguous projects are facilitated by direct external help seeking beyond team boundaries, whereas low-ambiguity projects benefit from direct-leader help seeking.

Engaging Non-IT Executives in IT Infrastructure Decisions

This case study describes how information technology (IT) managers from Insurance Co. successfully engaged non-IT executives in IT infrastructure investment decisions. This enabled IT and non-IT stakeholder groups to take greater control of shared resources and achieve synergies that neither group could have achieved on its own. We describe three factors that enabled this type of engagement. First, the infrastructure group and the application development group developed strong internal IT capabilities to strengthen local alignment. Second, IT leaders also introduced short-term and long-term engagement opportunities for IT and non-IT stakeholder groups, representing local and enterprise-wide interests, to interact with each other. Finally, participants created several resources for managing interdependencies between applications, IT infrastructure services, and business objectives. Once engaged, and drawing on their capabilities and resources, IT and non-IT stakeholder groups developed a better understanding of how local applications related to each other and to shared resources, such as IT infrastructure.