Manjari Joshi

Endotracheal intubation in the field does not improve outcome in trauma patients who present without an acutely lethal traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVES There is an absence of prospective data evaluating the impact of prehospital intubation in adult trauma patients. Our objectives were to determine the outcome of trauma patients intubated in the field who did not have an acutely lethal traumatic brain injury (death within 48 hours) compared with patients who were intubated immediately on arrival to the hospital. METHODS Prospective data were collected on 191 consecutive patients admitted to the trauma center with a field Glasgow Coma Scale score < or = 8 and a head Abbreviated Injury Scale score > or = 3 who were either intubated in the field or intubated immediately at admission to the hospital. Patients who died within 48 hours of admission and transfers were excluded from the study. RESULTS Of the 191 patients, 176 (92%) sustained blunt trauma and 25 (8%) were victims of penetrating trauma. Seventy-eight (41%) of the 191 patients were intubated in the field and 113 (59%) were intubated immediately at admission. There was no significant difference in age, Glasgow Coma Scale score, head Abbreviated Injury Scale score, or Injury Severity Score between the two groups. Patients who were intubated in the field had a significantly higher morbidity (ventilator days, 14.7 vs. 10.4; hospital days, 20.2 vs. 16.7; and intensive care unit days, 15.2 vs. 11.7) compared with patients intubated on immediate arrival to the hospital and nearly double the mortality (23% vs. 12.4). Field-intubated patients had a 1.5 times greater risk of nosocomial pneumonia compared with hospital-intubated patients. CONCLUSION Prehospital intubation is associated with a significant increase in morbidity and mortality in trauma patients with traumatic brain injury who are admitted to the hospital without an acutely lethal injury. A randomized, prospective study is warranted to confirm these results.

Tight glycemic control in critically injured trauma patients.

Objectives:Evaluate the impact of a tight glucose control (TGC) protocol during the first week of admission in critically injured trauma patients. Methods:A prospective quasi-experimental interrupted time-series design was used to evaluate the impact of TGC [24-month preintervention phase (no TGC) vs. 24-month postintervention phase]. Patients were stratified by serum glucose level on day 1 to 7 (low, 0–150 mg/dL; medium-high, 151–219 mg/dL; and high, ≥220 mg/dL), age, gender, and injury severity. Patients were further stratified by pattern of glucose control (all low, all medium high, all high, improving, worsening, highly variable). Outcome was measured by ventilator days, infection, hospital (HLOS) and ICU (ILOS) length of stay, and mortality. Results:One thousand twenty-one patients were evaluated in the preintervention phase as compared with 1108 patients in the postintervention phase. There was no significant difference in mechanism of injury (83% vs. 84% blunt), gender (74% vs. 73% male), age (44 vs. 43 years), and Injury Severity Score (ISS) (26 vs. 25). The TGC group was more likely to be in the all low and improving pattern of glucose control (P < 0.001). The incidence of infection significantly decreased (over the first 2 weeks) from 29% to 21% in the TGC group (P < 0.001). Ventilator days (OR = 3.9, 1.8, 8.1), ILOS (OR = 4.3, 2.1, 7.5), and HLOS (OR = 5.5, 2.2, 11) and mortality (OR = 1.4, 1.1, 10) were significantly higher in the non-TGC group when controlled for age, ISS, obesity, and diabetes (P < 0.01). Conclusion:The positive outcomes associated with the implementation of a TGC protocol necessitates further evaluation in a randomized prospective trial.

Early hyperglycemic control is important in critically injured trauma patients

BACKGROUND Our objectives were to determine whether persistent hyperglycemia when compared with normoglycemia was predictive of outcome in the later stages of hospitalization in critically injured trauma patients. METHODS A prospective study was conducted on 896 consecutive trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit during a 2-year period. Patients were stratified by serum glucose level on day 1 to day 28 (low = 0-139 mg/dL, medium to high = 140-219 mg/dL, and high = >220 mg/dL), age, gender, race, insulin dependent diabetes, obesity, and Injury Severity Score (ISS). Patients were further stratified by pattern of glucose control (all low, all moderate, all high, improving, worsening, highly variable. Outcome was measured by ventilator days, infection, hospital and intensive care unit length of stay, and mortality. Multiple variable logistic and linear regression models were used to determine level of significance. RESULTS Eighty-three percent were victims of blunt trauma. The majority (74%) were male, with a mean ISS of 26 +/- 12. Hyperglycemia (moderate, worsening, and highly variable) in the first week was associated with significantly greater hospital and intensive care unit length of stay, ventilator time, infection, and mortality when controlling for age, race, gender, ISS, mechanism of injury, obesity, and insulin dependent diabetes (p < 0.03). However, hyperglycemia in later weeks was not associated with infection and only weakly associated with mortality when analyzed by the same model. When controlling for glucose levels in subsequent weeks, patients who were normoglycemic in the first week had a lower infection rate and were less likely to die even when controlling for age, ISS, and obesity (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Early euglycemia is associated with improved outcome and appears to be protective regardless of glucose levels in subsequent weeks. Further studies are warranted to determine the etiology of this protective effect.

Persistent systemic inflammatory response syndrome is predictive of nosocomial infection in trauma

BACKGROUND Admission systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) score has been previously reported to be an accurate predictor of infection and outcome in trauma. However, these data were limited to only one SIRS score at admission. A prior study in surgical intensive care unit (ICU) patients reported that the SIRS score on ICU day 2 declined after completion of resuscitation, and was a more accurate predictor of outcome. Our objective in this follow-up study was to prospectively evaluate the utility of daily SIRS scores in prediction of nosocomial infection and outcome in high-risk trauma patients. METHODS Prospective data were collected on 702 consecutive trauma patients admitted over a 12-month period to the ICU. SIRS scores were calculated daily. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines were used for the diagnosis of infection. Multivariate linear regression was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS Five hundred seventy-three (82%) patients sustained blunt injuries and 129 (18%) sustained penetrating injuries. The mean age was 43 +/- 21 years, with an overall mortality of 11.4%. Two hundred ninety (41.3%) of the study patients acquired a nosocomial infection (respiratory site most common), with an associated mortality rate of 12.4%. SIRS (defined as SIRS score >/= 2) on hospital days 3 through 7 was a significant predictor of nosocomial infection and hospital length of stay. Persistent SIRS to hospital day 7 was associated with a significant risk for increased mortality (relative risk, 4.7; 95% confidence interval, 1.41-12.87; p = 0.047). CONCLUSION Persistent SIRS is predictive of nosocomial infection in trauma. Daily monitoring of SIRS scores is easily accomplished and should be considered in all high-risk trauma patients. Persistent SIRS in trauma should initiate early diagnostic interventions for determination of source of infection, and consideration of early empiric antimicrobial therapy.

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome score at admission independently predicts infection in blunt trauma patients.

BACKGROUND Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) score has been demonstrated to be an accurate predictor of outcome in critical surgical illness. To our knowledge, there is a paucity of data using SIRS score as a tool to predict posttraumatic infection. Our goal was to determine whether the severity of SIRS score at admission is an accurate predictor of infection in trauma patients. METHODS Prospective data were collected on 4,887 blunt trauma patients admitted to a primary adult resource center designated trauma center over an 18-month period. Patients were stratified by age and Injury Severity Score (ISS). SIRS score was calculated at admission. SIRS was defined as an SIRS score > or = 2. Each patient was screened for infection by an infectious disease specialist. Those at high risk for infection were then monitored daily throughout their hospitalization. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines were used to diagnose infection. RESULTS Of the 4,887 patients, 1,850 (38%) were admitted > 24 hours and evaluated for subsequent infection (mean ISS, 16 +/- 9; mean age, 43 +/- 19, SD). Thirty-one percent (577) of the patients acquired an infection. The mean hospital length of stay (20.2 days vs. 6.5 days) and mortality (7.8% vs. 2.7%) were significantly greater in the infected group (p < 0.001). Of the four SIRS variables (temperature, heart rate, white blood cell count, and respiratory rate), hypothermia and leukocytosis were the most significant predictors of infection (p < 0.001) when adjusted for age and ISS. SIRS scores of > or = 2 were increasingly predictive of infection when analyzed by multiple logistic regression analysis. CONCLUSION An admission SIRS score of > or = 2 is a significant independent predictor of infection and outcome in blunt trauma. Daily SIRS scores may be a meaningful method of assessing postinjury risk of infection, and may initiate earlier diagnostic intervention for determination of infection.

Impact of nosocomial infections in trauma: does age make a difference?

BACKGROUND The effect of age and infection on outcome after trauma is unknown. We evaluated the incidence and impact that nosocomial infection (NI) and age have on morbidity and mortality. Several risk factors were identified and analyzed for correlation with infection. METHODS Prospective data were collected on patients admitted for > or = 3 days over a 2-year period. Each patient was followed by an infectious disease specialist throughout their hospitalization. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines were used to diagnose infection. RESULTS Of the 3,254 patients admitted, 88% were < 65 and 12% were > or = 65 years of age. Injury Severity Score was not significantly different (older vs. younger). Five hundred one (17.4%) of the younger patients developed an NI with a significantly higher hospital length of stay (LOS), intensive care unit (ICU) LOS, and mortality compared with the noninfected group. One hundred forty-seven (39%) of the older group developed an NI and also had significant increases in hospital LOS, ICU LOS, and mortality. Older infected patients had the highest hospital LOS, ICU LOS, and mortality. The greatest relative risk of mortality was demonstrated with the combination of increased age and NI. Once infected, however, younger patients with penetrating trauma had a greater relative risk of mortality in the group-specific comparison. Many risk factors were associated with infection. Only chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in elderly trauma patients was a significant independent risk factor for infection. CONCLUSION NI significantly increases hospital LOS, ICU LOS, and mortality after injury. Age increases risk of infection matched for injury severity, with a significantly higher hospital LOS, ICU LOS, and mortality. Once infected, however, younger patients with penetrating trauma have the greatest risk of mortality. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in elderly trauma patients was found to be an independent predictor of infection.

Video-based training increases sterile-technique compliance during central venous catheter insertion.

Objective:To evaluate the effect of an online training course containing video clips of central venous catheter insertions on compliance with sterile practice. Design:Prospective randomized controlled study. Setting:Admitting area of a university-based high-volume trauma center. Subjects:Surgical and emergency medicine residents rotating through the trauma services. Interventions:An online training course on recommended sterile practices during central venous catheter insertion was developed. The course contained short video clips from actual patient care demonstrating common noncompliant behaviors and breaks regarding recommended sterile practices. A 4-month study with a counterbalanced design compared residents trained by the video-based online training course (video group) with those trained with a paper version of the course (paper group). Residents who inserted central venous catheters but received neither the paper nor video training were used as a control group. Consecutive central venous catheter insertions from 12 noon to 12 midnight except Sundays were video recorded. Measurements and Main Results:Sterile-practice compliance was judged through video review by two surgeons blinded to the training status of the residents. Fifty residents inserted 73 elective central venous catheters (19, 31, and 23 by the video, paper, and control group operators, respectively) into 68 patients. Overall compliance with proper operator preparation, skin preparation, and draping was 49% (36 of 73 procedures). The training had no effect on selection of site and skin preparation agent. The video group was significantly more likely than the other two groups to fully comply with sterile practices (74% vs. 33%; odds ratio, 6.1; 95% confidence interval, 2.0–22.0). Even after we controlled for the number of years in residency training, specialty, number of central venous catheters inserted, and central venous catheter site chosen, the video group was more likely to comply with recommended sterile practices (p = .003). Conclusions:An online training course, with short video clips of actual patient care demonstrating noncompliant behaviors, improved sterile-practice compliance for central venous catheter insertion. Paper handouts with equivalent content did not improve compliance.

A time-dependent analysis of intensive care unit pneumonia in trauma patients.

BACKGROUND Appropriate and timely antibiotic therapy to treat pneumonia in trauma patients is extremely important. We evaluated the incidence and microbiology of pneumonia stratified by days postadmission and risk factors. METHODS Prospective data were collected on 714 trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit over a 1-year period. Pneumonia was classified as community acquired (CAP) (< or = 3 days), early nosocomial (ENP) (4-6 days), or late nosocomial (LNP) (> or = 7 days). In addition, pneumonia was classified as CAP only, nosocomial only (NI), or combination (CAP and NI, or ENP and LNP) pneumonia. Strict institutional guidelines were followed for diagnosis. RESULTS One hundred eighty-two patients (25%) were diagnosed with 204 pneumonias over the study period. One hundred twenty-five (61%) of these pneumonias were ventilator associated. Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae were the most common pathogens isolated. Twenty-one percent of patients with CAP acquired an LNP (p < 0.025), in which Pseudomonas was the most common organism. Haemophilus caused LNP in 12% of patients. Cancer (p < 0.01), liver failure (p < 0.05), and age (p < 0.01) were predictive of nontypical pathogens in patients with CAP and ENP (p < 0.05). Obesity was most predictive of increased ventilator days (p < 0.001) and intensive care unit length of stay (p < 0.001). Increased age, alcohol abuse, and field airway were most predictive of mortality. CONCLUSION Unanticipated pathogens were isolated in each class of pneumonia. The clinician must be aware of significant risk factors that may predispose patients to pathogens that are not ordinarily covered with standard antibiotic therapy.

Blood Product Transfusion and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in Trauma Patients

BACKGROUND Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is the most common nosocomial infection in trauma patients, with a high mortality rate. Blood transfusion has been identified as an independent risk factor for VAP in critically ill patients. Prior studies in trauma are limited by retrospective design, lack of multivariable analyses, and scant data on the timing of transfusion. We examined critically the relation between blood product transfusion and VAP in trauma patients. METHODS Prospective observational cohort study of 766 trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU), who received mechanical ventilation (MV) for >or= 48 h, and who did not have pneumonia on admission. Late-onset VAP was defined as that occurring >or= 72 h after MV. Only transfusions of red blood cell (RBC) concentrate, fresh-frozen plasma (FFP), or platelets before the onset of VAP were considered. Logistic regression analyses controlled for all variables related significantly to VAP by univariate analysis (sex, Injury Severity Score, and ventilator days and ICU length of stay prior to VAP). RESULTS A significantly greater proportion of male patients developed VAP. Patients with VAP had a longer duration of MV: The mean number ventilator days prior to VAP was 11.1 +/- 8.0. Transfusion of blood products was an independent risk factor for VAP, and the risk increased with more units transfused. All blood products were associated with a higher risk of VAP (RBC: odds ratio [OR] 4.41; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.00, 19.54; p = 0.05; FFP: OR 3.34; 95% CI 1.18, 9.43; p = 0.023; platelets: OR 4.19; 95% CI 1.37, 12.83; p = 0.012). CONCLUSION Blood product transfusion is an independent risk factor for VAP in trauma, and the odds ratio is significantly higher (3.34-4.41) than in published studies of other types of ICU patients (1.89). To reduce the incidence of VAP, all efforts to reduce the transfusion of blood products to trauma patients should be implemented.

Acute glucose elevation is highly predictive of infection and outcome in critically injured trauma patients.

Objective(s):To evaluate whether acute glucose elevation (AGE) is predictive of infection and outcome in critically injured trauma patients during the first 14 days of ICU admission. Methods:A prospective study was conducted on 2200 patients admitted to the ICU over a 2 1/2 year period. The diagnosis of infection was made via a multidisciplinary fashion utilizing CDC criteria. After early glucose stabilization occurred (no significant change for 48 hours after admission) monitoring for AGE was performed utilizing a computational and graded algorithmic model. Iatrogenic causes of AGE were excluded. Stepwise regression models were performed controlling for age, gender, mechanism of injury, diabetes, injury severity, and APACHE 2 score. ROC curves were used to evaluate the positive predictive value of the test. Results:Seventy-seven percent of the patients in the cohort were males, and were admitted for blunt injuries (n = 1870 or 85%). The mean age, Injury Severity Score, and APACHE score were 44 ± 20 years, 29 ± 13, and 13 ± 7, respectively. The mean admission serum glucose value was 141 ± 36 mg/dL (range, 64–418 mg/dL). A total of 616 (28%) patients were diagnosed with an infection during the first 14 days of admission. AGE had a 91% positive predictive value for infection diagnosis. In addition, AGE was associated with a significant increase in ventilator, ICU, and hospital days as well as mortality even when adjusted for age, injury severity, APACHE score, and diabetes (P < 0.001). Conclusions:AGE is a highly accurate predictor of infection and should stimulate clinicians to identify a new source of infection.