Marc N. Gourevitch

Gender differences in factors associated with adherence to antiretroviral therapy

OBJECTIVE: To identify gender differences in social and behavioral factors associated with antiretroviral adherence.DESIGN: Prospective cohort study.SETTING: Methadone maintenance program.PARTICIPANTS: One hundred thirteen HIV-seropositive current or former opioid users.MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Participants were surveyed at baseline about social and behavioral characteristics and at monthly research visits about drug and alcohol use and medication side effects. Electronic monitors (MEMS) were used to measure antiretroviral adherence. Median adherence among women was 27% lower than among men (46% vs. 73%; P<.05). In gender-stratified multivariate models, factors associated with worse adherence in men included not belonging to an HIV support group (P<.0001), crack/cocaine use (P<.005), and medication side effects (P=.01). Among women, alcohol use (P=.005), heroin use (P<.05), and significant medication side effects (P<.005) were independently associated with worse adherence. In a model including both men and women, worse adherence was associated with lack of long-term housing (P<.005), not belonging to any HIV support groups (P<.0005), crack or cocaine use (P<.01), and medication side effects (P<.0005). In addition, worse adherence was associated with the interaction between female gender and alcohol use (P ≤ .05).CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of current and former opioid users, gender-stratified analysis demonstrated that different social and behavioral factors are associated with adherence in men and women. Among both men and women, worse adherence was associated with lack of long-term housing, not belonging to an HIV support group, crack/cocaine use, and medication side effects. Among women only, alcohol use was associated with worse adherence.

Integrating Services for Injection Drug Users Infected with Hepatitis C Virus with Methadone Maintenance Treatment: Challenges and Opportunities

Despite the high prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among drug users enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment programs, few drug users are being treated with combination therapy. The most significant barrier to treatment is lack of access to comprehensive HCV-related care. We describe a pilot program to integrate care for HCV infection with substance abuse treatment in a setting of maintenance treatment with methadone. This on-site, multidisciplinary model of care includes comprehensive screening and treatment for HCV infection, assessment of eligibility, counseling with regard to substance abuse, psychiatric services, HCV support groups, directly observed therapy, and enhanced linkages to a tertiary care system for diagnostic procedures. Our approach has led to high levels of adherence, with liver biopsy and substantial rates of initiation of antiviral therapy. Two cases illustrate the successful application of this model to patients with HCV infection complicated by active substance abuse and psychiatric comorbidity.

Crack Cocaine Use and Other Risk Factors for Tuberculin Positivity in Drug Users

Two-step tuberculin testing and standardized interviews of 793 current and former drug users were performed to determine the risk factors for tuberculin positivity. The prevalence of tuberculin positivity was 25%. Factors independently associated with tuberculin positivity among participants seronegative for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) included crack cocaine use (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 1.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.0-2.5), employment as a home health aide (adjusted OR, 2.1; 95% CI, 1.0-4.1), birth in Puerto Rico (adjusted OR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.3-3.6), foreign birthplace (adjusted OR, 4.7; 95% CI, 1.6-13.6), African American race (adjusted OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.2-5.0), reported tuberculosis exposure (adjusted OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.2-4.4), and older age (adjusted OR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.2-6.7). Additional risk factors among HIV-infected participants included alcoholism (adjusted OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.0-5.8) and high CD4(+) lymphocyte count. Identification of and administration of appropriate chemoprophylaxis to drug users with these risk factors should be given high priority.

Effectiveness of Isoniazid Treatment for Latent Tuberculosis Infection among Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)–Infected and HIV–Uninfected Injection Drug Users in Methadone Programs

Injection drug users (IDUs) were heavily affected by the tuberculosis (TB) resurgence in New York City in the 1990s. We assessed the effectiveness of screening for latent TB infection in methadone users and of selective treatment with isoniazid. Risk for future TB was classified as low or high on the basis of tuberculin, anergy, and HIV test results. The cohort of 2212 IDUs was followed up for a median of 4.2 years; 25 IDUs, of whom 20 (80%) were infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), developed TB. In an adjusted Cox proportional hazards model of high-risk IDUs, the risk of TB was associated with HIV infection (HR 10.3; 95% CI, 3.4-31.3); receipt of <6 months of isoniazid therapy (HR 7.6; 95% CI, 1.02-57.1); a CD4+ T lymphocyte count of <200 cells/mm3 (HR 6.6; 95% CI, 1.7-25.9); and tuberculin positivity (HR 4.0; 95% CI, 1.6-10.2). Treatment with isoniazid was beneficial in HIV-infected, tuberculin-positive IDUs.

Three Oral Formulations of Methadone A Clinical and Pharmacodynamic Comparison

This study was done to determine whether there were any differences in subjective symptoms of opiate withdrawal or methadone pharmacodynamics among patients as they were switched between three different oral formulations of methadone. Patients enrolled in a three-way double-blind crossover trial of three methadone formulations. Subjective symptoms and pharmacodynamic measures were assessed throughout the study period. Eighteen patients were enrolled the study. No statistically significant differences in any of the pharmacodynamic parameters studied were found among the three methadone preparations. There was no significant difference among preparations in the rate and extent of rise and fall in plasma methadone levels during a 24-hour intensive sampling period. Subjective symptoms also did not correlate with methadone formulation. Intolerance to changes in methadone formulation, often observed clinically, do not appear to have a pharmacodynamic basis. Our findings support the notion that such change intolerance reflects factors other than the pharmacologic properties of the different formulations of methadone.

THE EPIDEMIOLOGY OF HIV AND AIDS : Current Trends

Nationally and globally the HIV/AIDS pandemic shows little sign of abating as it arrives at the midpoint of its second decade. In many communities, however, successful steps have been taken to limit its progression. The challenge of the years ahead lies in engaging individuals and communities to join in arresting and ultimately reversing the tide of this plague.

Effect of Prior Hepatitis B Infection on Serum IgE Levels in Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection

BACKGROUND Advanced HIV infection is associated with increased serum IgE levels, which in turn have been associated with a poor prognosis. Our preliminary data revealed that serum IgE levels were significantly elevated in HIV seropositive injection drug users compared with HIV seropositive non-injection drug users. Since viral hepatitis is common among injection drug users and is itself associated with elevated serum IgE levels, we studied whether there was an association between increased serum IgE levels and positive hepatitis serology in HIV-seropositive patients. METHODS A retrospective cross-sectional analysis was performed. The medical records of ambulatory HIV-infected patients in an ongoing study were reviewed. Forty-five patients had hepatitis A, B, and C serology performed. The associations between serum IgE levels and hepatitis A, B and C antibodies, CD4 and CD8 lymphocyte percentages, injection drug use, and sex were analyzed by univariate and multiple regression analyses. RESULTS On univariate analyses, hepatitis B antibody was significantly associated with increased serum IgE levels in HIV-infected subjects (P = .013), especially in those with AIDS (P = .015). Multiple regression analyses controlling for CD4 lymphocyte percentages, sex, and drug use, confirmed that hepatitis B antibody status remained significantly associated with increased serum IgE levels (P = .05). There was no association of serum IgE levels with hepatitis A or C serology. CONCLUSION Prior hepatitis B infection is significantly associated with increased serum IgE levels in advanced HIV infection. The clinical implications of this finding deserve further study.

Tuberculosis. The Comeback of a Killer

Tuberculosis, the single largest cause of death worldwide in the 19th and first half of the 20th century by an infectious agent, was considered a controllable disease in the 1950’s after the discovery of streptomycin, PAS and isoniazid. The incidence of tuberculosis began to decline in the United States and in Western Europe in the 1960’s and 1970’s resulting in the closing of sanatoria and clinics devoted to the treatment of this dread disease. This paper will deal with some of the myths related to TB including the one that, like small pox, for which a vaccine had been developed, TB could be totally eradicated. In the late 1970’s and the 1980’s, a gradual increase in TB began to re-emerge and reached epidemic proportions in the late 1980’s in New York City and other urban areas of the United States. This upsurge was alarming and mysterious. In 1990, the WHO convened a meeting in Geneva where the conclusions drawn by representatives of TB programs from all over the world were alarming: 2.9 million deaths were caused by tuberculosis in 1990, “making this disease the largest cause of death from a single pathogen in the world”. In June, 1992, the WHO issued a press release about the rise of tuberculosis in industrialized countries including the United Kingdom and Italy in addition to the United States. It seemed evident that there must be a common factor. Although socioeconomic factors such as crowding, homelessness and poor nutrition were contributing factors, the main factor for this global threat was the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).