Marc Twagirumukiza

Current and projected prevalence of arterial hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa by sex, age and habitat: an estimate from population studies

Introduction In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), data on hypertension prevalence in terms of urban or rural and sex difference are lacking, heterogeneous or contradictory. In addition, there are no accurate estimates of hypertension burden. Objective To estimate the age-specific and sex-specific prevalence of arterial hypertension in SSA in urban and rural adult populations. Methods We searched for population studies, conducted from 1998 through 2008 in SSA. We extracted data from selected studies on available prevalences and used a logistic regression model to estimate all age/sex/habitat (urban/rural)/country-specific prevalences for SSA up to 2008 and 2025. On the basis of the United Nations Population Fund data for 2008 and predictions for 2025, we estimated the number of hypertensives in both years. Results Seventeen studies pertaining to 11 countries were analysed. The overall prevalence rate of hypertension in SSA for 2008 was estimated at 16.2% [95% confidence interval (CI) 14.1–20.3], ranging from 10.6% in Ethiopia to 26.9% in Ghana. The estimated prevalence was 13.7% in rural areas, 20.7% in urban areas, 16.8% in males, and 15.7% in women. The total number of hypertensives in SSA was estimated at 75 million (95% CI 65–93 million) in 2008 and at 125.5 million (95% CI 111.0–162.9 million) by 2025. Conclusion The estimated number of hypertensives in 2008 is nearly four times higher than the last (2005) estimate of the World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa. Prevalences were significantly higher in urban than in rural populations. Population data are lacking in many countries underlining the need for national surveys.

Prevalence of dilated cardiomyopathy in HIV-infected African patients not receiving HAART: a multicenter, observational, prospective, cohort study in Rwanda.

INTRODUCTION Several studies performed before the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) have shown that HIV-1 infection is an important cause of dilated cardiomyopathy. However, factors associated with the development of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy in developing countries are still debated. OBJECTIVES To assess the prevalence of dilated cardiomyopathy, diagnosed by echocardiography, in HIV-infected Rwandese patients not receiving HAART and the risk factors associated with its development. METHODS A sample of 416 HIV-infected african patients, without a previous definite history of cardiovascular disease, attending University hospitals in Rwanda, from January to December 2005, were included in a multicenter, observational, prospective, cohort study, with the collaboration of two European Clinical Centers (in France and in Italy). Clinical and laboratory tests along with echocardiographic examination were performed in all patients included in the study. RESULTS Out of 416 patients included in the study, dilated cardiomyopathy was documented by echocardiography in 71 (17.7%). By both univariate and multivariate analysis, low socio-economic status, estimated duration of HIV-1 infection, CD4 count, HIV-1 viral load, CDC stage B and C of HIV disease and low plasmatic level of selenium were factors significantly associated with the development of cardiomyopathy. Alcohol consumption and smoking were factors associated with the development of cardiomyopathy only by univariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS HIV-associated cardiomyopathy is a significant clinical problem in HIV-infected patients not receiving HAART in Rwanda. Early tracking of cardiomyopathy in African HIV-infected patients is therefore recommended. Before administering HAART, clinicians should be aware of a possible existing cardiomyopathy to ensure appropriate, comprehensive, and rational patient care.

Cardiovascular risk assessment in low-resource settings: a consensus document of the European Society of Hypertension Working Group on Hypertension and Cardiovascular Risk in Low Resource Settings.

The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2010 confirms ischemic heart disease and stroke as the leading cause of death and that hypertension is the main associated risk factor worldwide. How best to respond to the rising prevalence of hypertension in resource-deprived settings is a topic of ongoing public-health debate and discussion. In low-income and middle-income countries, socioeconomic inequality and cultural factors play a role both in the development of risk factors and in the access to care. In Europe, cultural barriers and poor communication between health systems and migrants may limit migrants from receiving appropriate prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. To use more efficiently resources available and to make treatment cost-effective at the patient level, cardiovascular risk approach is now recommended. In 2011, The European Society of Hypertension established a Working Group on ‘Hypertension and Cardiovascular risk in low resource settings’, which brought together cardiologists, diabetologists, nephrologists, clinical trialists, epidemiologists, economists, and other stakeholders to review current strategies for cardiovascular risk assessment in population studies in low-income and middle-income countries, their limitations, possible improvements, and future interests in screening programs. This report summarizes current evidence and presents highlights of unmet needs.

Management of hypertension at the community level in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA): towards a rational use of available resources

Hypertension is emerging in many developing nations as a leading cause of cardiovascular mortality, morbidity and disability in adults. In sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries it has specificities such as occurring in young and active adults, resulting in severe complications dominated by heart failure and taking place in limited-resource settings in which an individuals access to treatment (affordability) is very limited. Within this context of restrained economic conditions, the greatest gains for SSA in controlling the hypertension epidemic lie in its prevention. Attempts should be made to detect hypertensive patients early before irreversible organ damage becomes apparent, and to provide them with the best possible and affordable non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatment. Therefore, efforts should be made for detection and early management at the community level. In this context, a standardized algorithm of management can help in the rational use of available resources. Although many international and regional guidelines have been published, they cannot apply to SSA settings because the economy of the countries and affordability of the patients do not allow access to advocated treatment. In addition, none of them suggest a clear algorithm of management for limited-resource settings at the community level. In line with available data and analysing existing guidelines, a practical algorithm for management of hypertension at the community level, including treatment affordability, has been suggested in the present work.

Prices of antihypertensive medicines in sub-Saharan Africa and alignment to WHO's model list of essential medicines

Objective  To investigate compliance of National Essential Medicines Lists (NEMLs) with the WHO Essential Medicines List (WHO/EML) in 2007 and to compare prices of antihypertensive drugs in and between 13 sub‐Saharan African countries.

Influence of Tropical Climate Conditions on the Quality of Antihypertensive Drugs from Rwandan Pharmacies

The objective of this study was to assess the quality of antihypertensive drugs and to investigate the influence of tropical storage conditions. Drug content and in vitro dissolution tests were performed on 10 test formulations (from Rwanda) and 6 reference formulations (from Belgium or France) after purchase and after 6-month storage under long-term (25 +/- 2 degrees C and 60 +/- 5% relative humidity [RH]) and accelerated (40 +/- 2 degrees C and 75 +/- 5% RH) testing conditions. Twenty percent of test formulations were of substandard content at the time of purchase. After 6 months at accelerated testing conditions, 7 of 10 test formulations were substandard in content and 8 were substandard for the combined criteria of drug content and dissolution, whereas no reference drug became substandard. This study shows that, apart from some drugs being already substandard from purchase, accelerated testing conditions (simulating tropical climate) have deleterious effects on the majority of antihypertensive drug formulations found in the Rwandan market.

Webuye Health and Demographic Surveillance Systems Baseline Survey of Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Intestinal Protozoa among Children up to Five Years

Background. The intestinal parasitic infections (IPIs) are globally endemic, and they constitute the greatest cause of illness and disease worldwide. Transmission of IPIs occurs as a result of inadequate sanitation, inaccessibility to potable water, and poor living conditions. Objectives. To determine a baseline prevalence of IPIs among children of five years and below at Webuye Health and Demographic Surveillance (HDSS) area in western Kenya. Methods. Cross-sectional survey was used to collect data. Direct saline and formal-ether-sedimentation techniques were used to process the specimens. Descriptive and inferential statistics such as Chi-square statistics were used to analyze the data. Results. A prevalence of 52.3% (417/797) was obtained with the male child slightly more infected than the female (53.5% versus 51%), but this was not significant (χ 2 = 0.482, P > 0.05). Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica were the most common pathogenic IPIs with a prevalence of 26.1% (208/797) and 11.2% (89/797), respectively. Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) were less common with a prevalence of 4.8% (38/797), 3.8% (30/797), and 0.13% (1/797) for Ascaris lumbricoides, hookworms, and Trichuris trichiura, respectively. Conclusions. Giardia lamblia and E. histolytica were the most prevalent pathogenic intestinal protozoa, while STHs were less common. Community-based health promotion techniques are recommended for controlling these parasites.

Taste-masked quinine sulphate pellets: bio-availability in adults and steady-state plasma concentrations in children with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria.

Abstract Background: Quinine sulphate (QS), like most other antimalarials, is in tablet form designed for adults. In children, treatment is based on breaking the tablets to adapt the dose to the childs bodyweight. However, poor breakability owing to the tablet design or the absence of a score line can lead to inaccurate dosage. Furthermore, QS is very bitter which reduces its acceptability to children. QS taste-masked pellets have been developed which offer more flexibility in adapting dosage to a childs weight. Aims: To evaluate the oral bio-availability of QS taste-masked pellets in healthy adult volunteers and to determine steady-state plasma concentrations in children aged <5 years with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Methods: Healthy adult volunteers at Kigali University Hospital received a single dose of 600 mg QS as tastemasked pellets or as commercially available tablets. A total of 56 children <5 years with uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria were recruited among patients attending Butare University Hospital and nearby health centres and treated with QS taste-masked pellets, 10–12.5 mg/kg every 8 h for 7 days. Quinine steady-state plasma concentrations were assessed on the 4th day of treatment. Results: Following administration of taste-masked pellets to healthy adult volunteers, peak plasma concentration (Cmax) and area-under-the-curve (AUC) (Cmax 4.7 μg.ml−1, AUC0–24 63.5 μg.h.ml−1) were significantly higher (p<0.05) than for tablets (Cmax 3.7 μg.ml−1, AUC0–24 52.4 μg.h.ml−1), but still within the limits reported for quinine. The steady-state concentrations in children were in the therapeutic range for quinine. All the children recovered and completed the 14-day follow-up. Conclusion: QS taste-masked pellets offered the possibility to easily adjust the dose to the bodyweight of the child and can be used as an alternative to dividing tablets.

The contribution of primary health care to global health

In March 2010, UN-Secretary General Ban Ki-moon challenged member states to increase their efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): ‘the lack of commitment increases the likelihood of a failure’.1 Nevertheless, there are positive signs: when it comes to eradication of extreme poverty, important progress has been made. Access to basic education, equity between men and women at the level of basic and secondary education, and access to water, show clear improvements. However, the picture is not that hopeful in relation to the health-related MDGs which include: reduction of child mortality and maternal mortality, tackling the HIV/AIDS problem, and preventing malaria and other diseases.2 Almost 8 million children yearly do not reach the age of 5 years and these problems are concentrated in Africa and South Asia.3 Progress is possible, as demonstrated by the countries in Latin America, where child mortality decreased between 1990 and 2008. The goal to reduce maternal mortality by 75% between 1990 and 2015, is likely to be achieved in only 23 countries, with Sub-Saharan Africa remaining the biggest problem.4 New health problems arise in developing countries: the non-communicable diseases (such as diabetes and heart failure) are increasing and may seriously hamper the realisation of the MDGs.5 It is obvious that achieving the MDGs will be closely related to the reduction of the socioeconomic inequities in health between continents and countries, and within countries. The report Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health , by the Commission on Social Determinants of Health stresses the importance of the development of primary care in addressing socioeconomic inequities in health.6 The Commission states clearly: > ‘Healthcare systems have …

Roadmap to achieve 25% hypertension control in Africa by 2025

Summary Background and aim: The Pan-African Society of Cardiology (PASCAR) has identified hypertension as the highest area of priority for action to reduce heart disease and stroke on the continent. The aim of this PASCAR roadmap on hypertension was to develop practical guidance on how to implement strategies that translate existing knowledge into effective action and improve detection, treatment and control of hypertension and cardiovascular health in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by the year 2025. Methods: Development of this roadmap started with the creation of a consortium of experts with leadership skills in hypertension. In 2014, experts in different fields, including physicians and non-physicians, were invited to join. Via faceto- face meetings and teleconferences, the consortium made a situation analysis, set a goal, identified roadblocks and solutions to the management of hypertension and customised the World Heart Federation roadmap to Africa. Results: Hypertension is a major crisis on the continent but very few randomised, controlled trials have been conducted on its management. Also, only 25.8% of the countries have developed or adopted guidelines for the management of hypertension. Other major roadblocks are either government and health-system related or healthcare professional or patient related. The PASCAR hypertension task force identified a 10-point action plan to be implemented by African ministries of health to achieve 25% control of hypertension in Africa by 2025. Conclusions: Hypertension affects millions of people in SSA and if left untreated, is a major cause of heart disease and stroke. Very few SSA countries have a clear hypertension policy. This PASCAR roadmap identifies practical and effective solutions that would improve detection, treatment and control of hypertension on the continent and could be implemented as is or adapted to specific national settings.