Marc Waelkens

Pig Domestication and Human-Mediated Dispersal in Western Eurasia Revealed through Ancient DNA and Geometric Morphometrics

Zooarcheological evidence suggests that pigs were domesticated in Southwest Asia ∼8,500 BC. They then spread across the Middle and Near East and westward into Europe alongside early agriculturalists. European pigs were either domesticated independently or more likely appeared so as a result of admixture between introduced pigs and European wild boar. As a result, European wild boar mtDNA lineages replaced Near Eastern/Anatolian mtDNA signatures in Europe and subsequently replaced indigenous domestic pig lineages in Anatolia. The specific details of these processes, however, remain unknown. To address questions related to early pig domestication, dispersal, and turnover in the Near East, we analyzed ancient mitochondrial DNA and dental geometric morphometric variation in 393 ancient pig specimens representing 48 archeological sites (from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic to the Medieval period) from Armenia, Cyprus, Georgia, Iran, Syria, and Turkey. Our results reveal the first genetic signatures of early domestic pigs in the Near Eastern Neolithic core zone. We also demonstrate that these early pigs differed genetically from those in western Anatolia that were introduced to Europe during the Neolithic expansion. In addition, we present a significantly more refined chronology for the introduction of European domestic pigs into Asia Minor that took place during the Bronze Age, at least 900 years earlier than previously detected. By the 5th century AD, European signatures completely replaced the endemic lineages possibly coinciding with the widespread demographic and societal changes that occurred during the Anatolian Bronze and Iron Ages.

Study of ancient mortars from Sagalassos (Turkey) in view of their conservation

Abstract Since 1990, regular archeological excavations are done in the Roman city of Sagalassos (southwestern Turkey) by the Catholic University of Leuven (Belgium). The mineralogy and petrography of the lime mortars at Sagalassos have been studied in detail as part of an investigation of the provenance of mineral raw materials present in the territory of Sagalassos. The samples were analysed with optical microscopy on thin sections followed by XRD analyses to design a suitable repair mortar. The lime used as binder was burnt from local Triassic limestones and prepared by dry slaking. Three main types of aggregates have been identified: limestone from local Mesozoic limestones, crushed ceramics from locally produced coarse wares and volcanic tuff from a nearby volcanic region. To preserve the excavated remains in very harsh climatic winter conditions, experimental mixtures of restoration mortar have been tested for strength and frost resistance using similar raw materials as in ancient times. The proposed mortar for further on-site conservation and restoration consists of a mix of lime with crushed volcanic rock from the region of Isparta. This composition is very similar to the original Roman material and shows a high frost resistance in freeze–thaw testing.

Analysis of oil used in late Roman oil lamps with different mass spectrometric techniques revealed the presence of predominantly olive oil together with traces of animal fat.

The lipid fraction of residues in ancient oil lamps found at the archaeological site of Sagalassos (south-west Turkey) was analysed by gas chromatography (GC) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS). The identification of plant sterols and long chain alcohols suggested that a vegetable oil was used in these lamps. The lipid sample was also analysed with reversed-phase liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to MS with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI). The identification of TAGs detected with LC-APCI-MS showed that predominantly olive oil was used as a fuel for the antique oil lamps. The presence of large quantities of multiply unsaturated triacylglycerol (TAG) and traces of saturated TAG indicated that also other oils and animal fat were added. Summarizing, the analysis of TAGs with LC-APCI-MS in lipid extracts of ancient ceramics proved to be a valuable method to reconstitute the original contents.

3D MURALE: a multimedia system for archaeology

This paper introduces the 3D Measurement and Virtual Reconstruction of Ancient Lost Worlds of Europe system (3D MURALE). It consists of a set of tools for recording, reconstructing, encoding, visualising and database searching/querying that operate on buildings, building parts, statues, statue parts, pottery, stratigraphy, terrain geometry and texture and material texture. The tools are loosely linked together by a common database on which they all have the facility to store and access data. The paper describes the overall architecture of the 3D MURALE system and then briefly describes the functionality of the tools provided by the project. The paper compares the multimedia studio architecture adopted in this project with other multimedia studio architectures.

Mass spectrometric methods prove the use of beeswax and ruminant fat in late Roman cooking pots.

Lipid extracts of sherds of archaeological late Roman cooking pots were analysed using high temperature-gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer and liquid chromatography with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometer detection (LC-APCI-MS). With these advanced techniques the use of beeswax was shown through identification of the constituting alkanes, mono and diesters. The detection of high amounts of saturated triacylglycerols (TAGs) further indicated that animal fat was processed in these pots. Part of the animal fat was characterised as originating from ruminants due to the presence of trans-fatty acids. The distribution of saturated TAGs and the higher concentration of stearic acid compared to palmitic acid in the transesterified lipid extract indicated that this was sheep fat. The results illustrate how complex mixtures can be unravelled and original contents of ancient ceramic vessels can be determined using specialised analytical equipment.

Classical Marble: Geochemistry, Technology, Trade

Introductory Chapters.- J.B. Ward-Perkins and the Marble Committee.- Geology of Greece and Turkey: Potential Marble Source Regions.- Quarries and the Marble Trade in Antiquity.- Quarries and Quarrying Technology.- Extraction of Blocks in Antiquity: Special Methods of Analysis.- Problems of Identification and Interpretation of Tool Marks on Ancient Marbles and Decorative Stones.- Methods of Transporting Blocks in Antiquity.- The Quarries of Mount Taygetos in the Peloponnesos, Greece.- Marmora Lunensia: Quarrying Technology and Archeological Use.- The Geology, Quarrying Technology and Use of Beylerkoy Marbles in Western Turkey.- Numidian Marble and Some of its Specialities.- The Roman Quarries of Mons Claudianus, Egypt an Interim Report.- Ancient Granite Quarries on the Bocche di Bonifacio.- Preliminary Dressing of Extracted Material.- The Stages of Workmanship of the Corinthian Capital in Proconnesus and its Export Form.- The Marble Architectural Elements in Export-Form from the ?ile Shipwreck.- Production Patterns of Sarcophagi in Phrygia.- Trade and Archaeological Use of Marble.- The Roman Emperors in the Marble Business: Capitalists, Middlemen or Philanthropists?.- Marble in Cyprus: Classical Times to Middle Ages.- Marble Imports and Local Stone in the Architectural Decoration of Roman Palestine: Marble Trade, Techniques and Artistical Taste.- The Introduction of Polychrome Marbles in Late Republican Rome: The Evidence from Mosaic Pavements with Marble Insertions.- The Marbles Used in the Decoration of Hadrians Villa at Tivoli.- From West to East: Evidence for a Shift in the Balance of Trade in White Marbles.- Relationships between Style and Size of Statuary and the Availability of Marble at Cyrene.- Acrolithic or Pseudo-Acrolithic Sculpture of the Mature Classical Greek Period in the Archaeological Museum of the Johns Hopkins University.- Material Limitations and Exotic Materials in the Copying of a Hellenistic Statuary Type.- Marble Veneer from an Urban Archaeological Site in Naples: A Case Study.- Techniques for Determining Provenance: Multivariate Petrographical and Chemical Approaches.- Weathering Characteristics, Age, and Provenance Determinations on Ancient Greek and Roman Marble Artifacts.- A Multi-Method Approach to the Identification of White Marbles Used in Antique Artifacts.- Provenance Characteristics of Cycladic (Paros and Naxos) Marbles - A Multivariate Geological Approach.- Chemical and Petrographical Characterization of Greek Marbles from Pentelikon, Naxos, Paros and Thasos.- Techniques for Determining Provenance: Trace Element Analysis.- Provenance Studies of Greek Marbles by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis.- A Computer-Based Pattern Recognition Approach to the Provenance Study of Mediterranean Marbles Through Trace Elements Analysis.- Neutron Activation Analysis: A Powerful Technique in Provenance Studies.- Techniques for Determining Provenance: Stable Isotope Analysis.- The Oxygen and Carbon Isotopic Data Base for Classical Marble.- Geochemistry and Archaeological Geology of the Carrara Marble, Carrara, Italy.- Variations in Stable Isotopic Compositions of Marble: An Assessment of Causes.- Variability in Stable Isotope Analysis: Implications for Joining Fragments.- Statistical Treatment of Stable Isotope Data.- Techniques for Determining Provenance: Xeroradiography, ESR Spectroscopy, X-Ray Powder Diffractometry, and Pore-Size Distribution.- Marble Provenience by Computer-Assisted Analysis of Xeroradiographs.- ESR Spectroscopy and X-Ray Powder Diffractometry for Marble Provenance Determination.- The Interest of Pore-Size Distribution in the Identification of Marbles -Introductory Chapters.- J.B. Ward-Perkins and the Marble Committee.- Geology of Greece and Turkey: Potential Marble Source Regions.- Quarries and the Marble Trade in Antiquity.- Quarries and Quarrying Technology.- Extraction of Blocks in Antiquity: Special Methods of Analysis.- Problems of Identification and Interpretation of Tool Marks on Ancient Marbles and Decorative Stones.- Methods of Transporting Blocks in Antiquity.- The Quarries of Mount Taygetos in the Peloponnesos, Greece.- Marmora Lunensia: Quarrying Technology and Archeological Use.- The Geology, Quarrying Technology and Use of Beylerkoy Marbles in Western Turkey.- Numidian Marble and Some of its Specialities.- The Roman Quarries of Mons Claudianus, Egypt an Interim Report.- Ancient Granite Quarries on the Bocche di Bonifacio.- Preliminary Dressing of Extracted Material.- The Stages of Workmanship of the Corinthian Capital in Proconnesus and its Export Form.- The Marble Architectural Elements in Export-Form from the ?ile Shipwreck.- Production Patterns of Sarcophagi in Phrygia.- Trade and Archaeological Use of Marble.- The Roman Emperors in the Marble Business: Capitalists, Middlemen or Philanthropists?.- Marble in Cyprus: Classical Times to Middle Ages.- Marble Imports and Local Stone in the Architectural Decoration of Roman Palestine: Marble Trade, Techniques and Artistical Taste.- The Introduction of Polychrome Marbles in Late Republican Rome: The Evidence from Mosaic Pavements with Marble Insertions.- The Marbles Used in the Decoration of Hadrians Villa at Tivoli.- From West to East: Evidence for a Shift in the Balance of Trade in White Marbles.- Relationships between Style and Size of Statuary and the Availability of Marble at Cyrene.- Acrolithic or Pseudo-Acrolithic Sculpture of the Mature Classical Greek Period in the Archaeological Museum of the Johns Hopkins University.- Material Limitations and Exotic Materials in the Copying of a Hellenistic Statuary Type.- Marble Veneer from an Urban Archaeological Site in Naples: A Case Study.- Techniques for Determining Provenance: Multivariate Petrographical and Chemical Approaches.- Weathering Characteristics, Age, and Provenance Determinations on Ancient Greek and Roman Marble Artifacts.- A Multi-Method Approach to the Identification of White Marbles Used in Antique Artifacts.- Provenance Characteristics of Cycladic (Paros and Naxos) Marbles - A Multivariate Geological Approach.- Chemical and Petrographical Characterization of Greek Marbles from Pentelikon, Naxos, Paros and Thasos.- Techniques for Determining Provenance: Trace Element Analysis.- Provenance Studies of Greek Marbles by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis.- A Computer-Based Pattern Recognition Approach to the Provenance Study of Mediterranean Marbles Through Trace Elements Analysis.- Neutron Activation Analysis: A Powerful Technique in Provenance Studies.- Techniques for Determining Provenance: Stable Isotope Analysis.- The Oxygen and Carbon Isotopic Data Base for Classical Marble.- Geochemistry and Archaeological Geology of the Carrara Marble, Carrara, Italy.- Variations in Stable Isotopic Compositions of Marble: An Assessment of Causes.- Variability in Stable Isotope Analysis: Implications for Joining Fragments.- Statistical Treatment of Stable Isotope Data.- Techniques for Determining Provenance: Xeroradiography, ESR Spectroscopy, X-Ray Powder Diffractometry, and Pore-Size Distribution.- Marble Provenience by Computer-Assisted Analysis of Xeroradiographs.- ESR Spectroscopy and X-Ray Powder Diffractometry for Marble Provenance Determination.- The Interest of Pore-Size Distribution in the Identification of Marbles - Suction Tests.- Provenance Determination Applied to Ancient Artifacts.- Source Analysis of the Raw Materials of Four Classical Marble Sculptures Using Chemical, Microscopic and Isotopic Criteria.- Determination of the Provenance of Marbles Used in Some Ancient Monuments in Rome.- The Arch of Constantine: Marble Samples.- Isotopic Analysis of Seventh-Century B.C. Perirrhanteria.- The Use of Marble Analysis in Collections of Ancient Sculpture: Some Examples from the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek.- Provenance Investigation of Marbles from Delphi with ESR Spectroscopy.- Marble Samples from the Arch of Constantine in Rome: Results of Electron Spin Resonance and Atomic Emission Analysis.- Decay and Conservation.- The Decay and Conservation of Marbles on Archaeological Monuments.- A Computerised System for the Study and Conservation of Opus Sectile Pavements.

Isotopic reconstruction of human diet and animal husbandry practices during the Classical-Hellenistic, imperial, and Byzantine periods at Sagalassos, Turkey

An isotopic reconstruction of human dietary patterns and livestock management practices (herding, grazing, foddering, etc.) is presented here from the sites of Düzen Tepe and Sagalassos in southwestern Turkey. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios were determined from bone collagen extracted from humans (n = 49) and animals (n = 454) from five distinct time periods: Classical-Hellenistic (400-200 BC), Early to Middle Imperial (25 BC-300 AD), Late Imperial (300-450 AD), Early Byzantine (450-600 AD), and Middle Byzantine (800-1200 AD). The humans had protein sources that were based on C(3) plants and terrestrial animals. During the Classical-Hellenistic period, all of the domestic animals had δ(13) C and δ(15) N signatures that clustered together; evidence that the animals were herded in the same area or kept in enclosures and fed on similar foods. The diachronic analysis of the isotopic trends in the dogs, cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats highlighted subtle but distinct variations in these animals. The δ(13) C values of the dogs and cattle increased (reflecting C(4) plant consumption) during the Imperial and Byzantine periods, but the pigs and the goats displayed little change and a constant C(3) plant-based diet. The sheep had a variable δ(13) C pattern reflecting periods of greater and lesser consumption of C(4) plants in the diet. In addition, the δ(15) N values of the dogs, pigs, cattle, and sheep increase substantially from the Classical-Hellenistic to the Imperial periods reflecting a possible increase in protein consumption, but the goats showed a decrease. Finally, these isotopic results are discussed in the context of zooarcheological, archeobotanical, and trace element evidence.

Man and environment in the territory of Sagalassos, a classical city in SW Turkey

Abstract Since 1990 archaeological research by the Catholic University of Leuven (Belgium) has been carried out at the ancient site of Sagalassos (Aǧlasun, Burdur province, Southwestern Turkey). At first, research focused on the excavation of the city and the study of the immediate vicinity which provided it with raw materials. The main objective was to obtain a clear picture of the history and development of the city. Since 1993 research has also incorporated a study of the territory of the Roman city, from prehistoric to modern times, in order to understand why the site was selected for settlement, why it developed into a middle-sized town, its economy and subsistence, how it affected and exploited the environment, its decline, and what changes have taken place in the district subsequently. The focus has now shifted towards obtaining a better understanding of the linkages between human and environment systems so that inter-relations between the two can be more readily understood. As a result, a number of environmental topics concerning the territory of the Roman city are presently being studied. This territory extended from Lake Burdur in the West to the Aksu canyon in the East, from the Aǧlasun Daǧlari in the North to Mt. Kestel in the South. Interdisciplinary research revealed that for the early Neolithic and the Roman period there was a slightly warmer climate, a richer vegetation and more fertile soils for agricultural practice.

Roman trade relationships at Sagalassos (Turkey) elucidated by ancient DNA of fish remains

The excavations of Roman and Early Byzantine contexts at the town of Sagalassos (Turkey) yielded fish remains belonging to species that do not occur near the site. The modern geographical distribution of the identified fish indicates trade with various regions of Anatolia, the Mediterranean coast, Egypt and/or the Levant. Trade with Levant and Egypt is evident throughout the period by the presence of Clarias, a catfish living amongst others in the Nile and Levant. Mitochondrial DNA analysis was successfully carried out on modern populations of this species from Turkey, Syria, Israel and Egypt. Several variable regions were discovered on the mitochondrial control region containing polymorphisms that distinguish the haplotypes. Primer sets were designed to amplify small fragments of ancient DNA containing these informative regions. Ancient fish DNA could be successfully extracted, amplified and sequenced. The analyses indicate that the catfish bones belong to Clarias gariepinus and that they originated from the lower Nile. In addition, this study sheds light on the understanding of the modern distribution of C. gariepinus in Anatolia.

Palynological evidence for late-Holocene human occupation recorded in two wetlands in SW Turkey

Pollen diagrams from mountain lakes and marshes in SW Turkey show evidence of intensive anthro pogenic influence in the landscape between 3500 and 1300 BP. Three cores from within the territory of the classical city Sagalassos (Western Taurus, Pisidia) were palynologically analysed to make a reconstruction of the past vegetation in the territory of Sagalassos and to estimate the impact of its inhabitants on the landscape in Pisidia. Two cores originate from an intramontane marsh (Gravgaz; elevation 1215 m) and one from a seasonal intramontane lake (ÇanaklK; elevation 1030 m). Human acitivity is apparent from c. 2530 BP in the pollen diagrams. A deforestation phase/‘disturbance’ phase (from c. 2530 BP/c. 2480 BP till c. 2280 BP/c. 2270 BP), anthropogenically or climatologically driven, precedes a cultivation period (arboricultural phase) (from c. 2280 BP/2270 BP till c. 1480 BP/c. 1270 BP). The results of the pollen analyses of the three cores are compared and show many similarities. There are also similarities with other cores from SW Turkey, although the arboricultural phase (mainly olive cultivation) occurs later in the cores from the Sagalassos territory than in other cores from SW Turkey.