Marcela Astorga

Genetic considerations for mollusk production in aquaculture: current state of knowledge

In 2012, world mollusk production in aquaculture reached a volume of 15,171,000 tons, representing 23% of total aquaculture production and positioning mollusks as the second most important category of aquaculture products (fishes are the first). Clams and oysters are the mollusk species with the highest production levels, followed in descending order by mussels, scallops, and abalones. In view of the increasing importance attached to genetic information on aquaculture, which can help with good maintenance and thus the sustainability of production, the present work offers a review of the state of knowledge on genetic and genomic information about mollusks produced in aquaculture. The analysis was applied to mollusks which are of importance for aquaculture, with emphasis on the 5 species with the highest production levels. According to FAO, these are: Japanese clam Ruditapes philippinarum; Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas; Chilean mussel Mytilus chilensis; Blood clam Anadara granosa and Chinese clam Sinonovacula constricta. To date, the genomes of 5 species of mollusks have been sequenced, only one of which, Crassostrea gigas, coincides with the species with the greatest production in aquaculture. Another important species whose genome has been sequenced is Mytilus galloprovincialis, which is the second most important mussel in aquaculture production, after M. chilensis. Few genetic improvement programs have been reported in comparison with the number reported in fish species. The most commonly investigated species are oysters, with at least 5 genetic improvement programs reported, followed by abalones with 2 programs and mussels with one. The results of this work will establish the current situation with respect to the genetics of mollusks which are of importance for aquaculture production, in order to assist future decisions to ensure the sustainability of these resources.

Microsatellites of Mytilus chilensis: A Genomic Print of Its Taxonomic Status within Mytilus sp.

ABSTRACT The taxonomic status of the Chilean blue mussel Mytilus chilensis has been controversial for decades because of its phenotypic and genetic proximity to other species of the genus Mytilus from both hemispheres. This study reports the development of nine polymorphic microsatellite markers from the M. chilensis genome. The number of alleles per locus ranged between four and nine, and the observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.182–0.750 in a wild sample of 24 individuals from Caicaén (Chiloé Region, Chile). Lack of efficient amplification of many of these microsatellite loci in other Mytilus species suggests that M. chilensis is a valid, distinct species within the genus. These new markers would be useful in fine-scale population analyses of M. chilensis as well in the aquaculture management of this marine resource.

Ciclo gonadal del chorito Mytilus chilensis (Bivalvia: Mytilidae) en dos localidades del sur de Chile

A qualitative and quantitative analysis was carried out of the gonadal cycle of the bivalve Mytilus chilensis from Chaihuin and Yal bay, southern Chile, between October 2007 and June 2008. Four gametogenic stages were determined using histological analysis of the gonads, and quantitative estimates were made of the Gametic Volume Fraction (VFG), percentage of inter follicular connective tissue, and the Gonadosomatic Index (IG). The quantitative analysis (VFG) was the best indicator of spawning. Two spawning events, one in October and one in March, were observed simultaneously in both sexes of mussels from Chaihuin. However, for specimens from bahia Yal, four spawning events were registered, principally from March to June (autumn), when the water temperature decreased. The relationship between the IG and the gametogenic stages was very low, as was that between the IG and the percentage of mature oocytes. Therefore, the IG is not a good indicator of spawning in this species. A re-evaluation of the ban period established for Mytilus chilensis (1 November to 31 December) is suggested since most individuals from the populations studied mature mainly in October. At both sites, the percentage of connective tissue for the analyzed mussel individuals ranged between 15 and 70% of gonadal coverage. The results obtained in the present study showed differences in the reproductive cycles of Mytilus chilensis between the sites sampled.

Naturalized Chinook salmon in the northern Chilean Patagonia: Do they originate from salmon farming?

En los rios del sur de Chile se han registrado individuos desovantes de salmon Chinook (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha). Esta especie fue introducida a partir del 1900 hasta los 80� y se cultiva actualmente en el mar. Nuestro objetivo fue identificar la procedencia de los salmones Chinook asilvestrados en el rio Petrohue, mediante el uso de 3 loci microsatelites. Los resultados fueron comparados con muestras de individuos obtenidos desde cultivo. Los resultados mostraron mayor variabilidad genetica en los individuos asilvestrados que la obtenida en los individuos de cultivo y ademas se observo divergencia genetica entre ellos, lo que permite indicar que las poblaciones de salmones desovantes en el rio Petrohue actualmente no son explicadas por posibles escapes desde los grupos de salmones de cultivo, sino mas bien corresponderian a poblaciones generadas desde los grupos liberados con fines de repoblamiento antes del comienzo de su cultivo.

Presence of two mitochondrial genomes in the mytilid Perumytilus purpuratus: Phylogenetic evidence for doubly uniparental inheritance

This study presents evidence, using sequences of ribosomal 16S and COI mtDNA, for the presence of two mitochondrial genomes in Perumytilus purpuratus. This may be considered evidence of doubly uniparental mtDNA inheritance. The presence of the two types of mitochondrial genomes differentiates females from males. The F genome was found in the somatic and gonadal tissues of females and in the somatic tissues of males; the M genome was found in the gonads and mantle of males only. For the mitochondrial 16S region, ten haplotypes were found for the F genome (nucleotide diversity 0.004), and 7 haplotypes for the M genome (nucleotide diversity 0.001), with a distance Dxy of 0.125 and divergence Kxy of 60.33%. For the COI gene 17 haplotypes were found for the F genome (nucleotide diversity 0.009), and 10 haplotypes for the M genome (nucleotide diversity 0.010), with a genetic distance Dxy of 0.184 and divergence Kxy of 99.97%. Our results report the presence of two well-differentiated, sex-specific types of mitochondrial genome (one present in the male gonad, the other in the female gonad), implying the presence of DUI in P. purpuratus. These results indicate that care must be taken in phylogenetic comparisons using mtDNA sequences of P. purpuratus without considering the sex of the individuals.

Análisis comparativo del ciclo gametogénico de Perumytilus purpuratus (Bivalvia: Mytilidae), en las localidades de Taltal y Huasco, norte de Chile

A qualitative and quantitative study of the gametogenic cycle from natural populations of Perumytilus purpuratus at the localities of Taltal and Huasco was carried out between October 2007 and October 2008. By means of histological analysis a gonadal maturation table was constructed according to the microscopic characteristics. Also the Gametic Volume Fraction (GVF) (% of previtelogenic oocytes, vitelogenic oocytes and mature oocytes), percentaje of interfolicular connective tissue and Gonadic Index (GI) were determined. According to the qualitative analysis, P. purpuratus has a semiannual reproductive cycle starting in January with spawning mainly during spring-summer, even do some winter spawning were detected. However, the quantitative analysis of mature oocytes percentajes found that at Taltal population four spawnings were detected (December, March, July and October) while in Huasco population three spawnings were detected (December, February and September). The relationship between GI with the gametogenic stages and the mature oocyte percentajes were significant at the localities studied. Also significant differences of the condition index between males and females were observed. Along the latitudinal gradient the reproductive cycle of P. purpuratus showed variations according to the timing and synchrony.

Phylogeography in Galaxias maculatus (Jenyns, 1848) along Two Biogeographical Provinces in the Chilean Coast.

Major geologic and climatic changes during the Quaternary exerted a major role in shaping past and contemporary distribution of genetic diversity and structure of aquatic organisms in southern South America. In fact, the northern glacial limit along the Pacific coast, an area of major environmental changes in terms of topography, currents, and water salinity, represents a major biogeographic transition for marine and freshwater species. We used mitochondrial DNA sequences (D-loop) to investigate the consequences of Quaternary glacial cycles over the pattern of genetic diversity and structure of G. maculatus (Pisces: Galaxiidae) along two biogeographical provinces in the Chilean coast. Extreme levels of genetic diversity and strong phylogeographic structure characterize the species suggesting a low amount of influence of the last glacial cycle over its demography. However, we recognized contrasting patterns of genetic diversity and structure between main biogeographical areas here analyzed. Along the Intermediate Area (38°–41° S) each estuarine population constitutes a different unit. In contrast, Magellanic populations (43°–53° S) exhibited low levels of genetic differentiation. Contrasting patterns of genetic diversity and structure recorded in the species between the analyzed biogeographic areas are consistent with the marked differences in abiotic factors (i.e., different coastal configurations, Quaternary glacial histories, and oceanographic regimes) and to inherent characteristics of the species (i.e., salt-tolerance, physiology, and reproductive behavior).

Phylogenetic Approaches to Delimit Genetic Lineages of the Mytilus Complex of South America: How Many Species are there?

ABSTRACT The aim of the present work is to increase the general knowledge about an economically important mussel species in Chile. Species of Mytilus are present in the southern cone of South America; however, there is still some controversy about species identification of samples from this area. The study herein presented attempts to: (1) corroborate the phylogenetic hypothesis defined for the Mytilus edulis species complex including taxa from a worldwide distribution; (2) evaluate the possible presence of the species Mytilus trossulus along the Chilean coast and determine if M. trossulus hybridizes with the local species; and (3) provide detailed data collected along the Chilean coast to help define the taxonomic status of Mytilus in South America. To this end, exhaustive sampling was conducted; Mytilus was collected from the Chilean coast and from the coasts of Argentina and Uruguay. Phylogenetic analysis and genetic divergence estimators were used to compare 426 Cytochrome oxidase I mitochondrial gene sequences and 190 16S RNA sequences of Mytilus species sampled from around the world. Following this, the time of divergence between northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere clades of Mytilus species was estimated. In addition, neither M. trossulus nor any associated hybrids were found along the Chilean coast. Finally, the identification of samples from the southern cone of South America is discussed including whether the samples should be identified as Mytilus planulatus or Mytilus platensis. In accordance with the taxonomic priority rules and the results presented here, the species identification frequently used in the literature for samples from the Chilean coast (Mytilus chilensis) may cease to be used.

Molecular detection and species identification of Alexandrium (Dinophyceae) causing harmful algal blooms along the Chilean coastline.

Misleading morphological observations assigned Alexandrium catenella as local dinoflagellate responsible for HABs in Southern Chilean coasts. Our work based on molecular methods found that local Alexandrium belongs to group I of the tamarensis complex composed mainly of A. tamarense.

PERMANENT GENETIC RESOURCES: Development of microsatellite markers for the ecosystem bioengineer mussel Perumytilus purpuratus and cross‐priming testing in six Mytilinae genera

Eight microsatellite markers have been characterized from the Perumytilus purpuratus genome. Their gene diversity ranged from 0.057 to 0.873 and significant interpopulation genic heterogeneity was observed between two populations of southeastern Pacific (Chile) and southwestern Atlantic (Argentine). Distinct cross‐priming amplification rates were recovered on nine additional species belonging to six Mytilinae genera. The microsatellites developed herein would likely be a powerful intraspecific genetic tool to undertake fine population studies in the intertidal ecosystem bioengineer P. purpuratus along the South American shoreline.