Marcelo Bigliassi

Corollary discharges and fatigue-related symptoms: the role of attentional focus.

Why do we stop? This question has intrigued researchers and exercise professionals worldwide (Noakes, 2000; Marcora, 2010; Amann et al., 2013). The answer is apparently linked to peripheral and cortical changes (Gandevia, 2001). Interestingly, most researchers are uncertain about the real mechanisms that underlie fatigue and task disengagement during exercise (Shephard, 2009). Due to the fact that fatigue-related symptoms are connected to psychophysiological changes and exercise performance, this question is paramount to understand the exercising human body (Marcora, 2008). Compelling evidence suggests that both peripheral changes and cortical activity create the sense of effort (Noakes, 2011). In such instance, the magnitude imposed by both cortical and peripheral changes will be determined in accord with the exercise mode and intensity. The present piece of work aims to provide an update on the psychobiological model (Pageaux, 2014) based on the evidence that attentional focus manipulates exerciser’s consciousness with consequent effects on exertional responses and exercise performance (Lohse et al., 2010; Lohse and Sherwood, 2011). “The psychobiological model is an effort-based decision making model based on motivational intensity theory, and postulates that the conscious regulation of pace is determined primarily by five different cognitive/motivational factors: Perception of effort; potential motivation; knowledge of the distance/time to cover; knowledge of the distance/time remaining; previous experience/memory of perception of effort during exercise of varying intensity and duration” (Pageaux, 2014). An integrative model has been developed to underpin psychological responses that occur in response to the increasing exercise intensity.

Brain mechanisms that underlie the effects of motivational audiovisual stimuli on psychophysiological responses during exercise

Motivational audiovisual stimuli such as music and video have been widely used in the realm of exercise and sport as a means by which to increase situational motivation and enhance performance. The present study addressed the mechanisms that underlie the effects of motivational stimuli on psychophysiological responses and exercise performance. Twenty-two participants completed fatiguing isometric handgrip-squeezing tasks under two experimental conditions (motivational audiovisual condition and neutral audiovisual condition) and a control condition. Electrical activity in the brain and working muscles was analyzed by use of electroencephalography and electromyography, respectively. Participants were asked to squeeze the dynamometer maximally for 30s. A single-item motivation scale was administered after each squeeze. Results indicated that task performance and situational motivational were superior under the influence of motivational stimuli when compared to the other two conditions (~20% and ~25%, respectively). The motivational stimulus downregulated the predominance of low-frequency waves (theta) in the right frontal regions of the cortex (F8), and upregulated high-frequency waves (beta) in the central areas (C3 and C4). It is suggested that motivational sensory cues serve to readjust electrical activity in the brain; a mechanism by which the detrimental effects of fatigue on the efferent control of working muscles is ameliorated.

How does music aid 5 km of running

Abstract Bigliassi, M, León-Domínguez, U, Buzzachera, CF, Barreto-Silva, V, and Altimari, LR. How does music aid 5 km of running? J Strength Cond Res 29(2): 305–314, 2015—This research investigated the effects of music and its time of application on a 5-km run. Fifteen well-trained male long-distance runners (24.87 ± 2.47 years; 78.87 ± 10.57 kg; 178 ± 07 cm) participated in this study. Five randomized experimental conditions during a 5-km run on an official track were tested (PM: motivational songs, applied before 5 km of running; SM: slow motivational songs, applied during 5 km of running; FM: fast and motivational songs, applied during 5 km of running; CS: calm songs, applied after 5 km of running; CO: control condition). Psychophysiological assessments were performed before (functional near-infrared spectroscopy, heart rate variability [HRV], valence, and arousal), during (performance time, heart rate, and rate of perceived exertion [RPE]), and after (mood, RPE, and HRV) tests. The chosen songs were considered pleasurable and capable of activating. Furthermore, they activated the 3 assessed prefrontal cortex (PFC) areas (medial, right dorsolateral, and left dorsolateral) similarly, generating positive emotional consequences by autonomous system analysis. The first 800 m was accomplished faster for SM and FM compared with other conditions (p ⩽ 0.05); moreover, there was a high probability of improving running performance when music was applied (SM: 89%; FM: 85%; PM: 39%). Finally, music was capable of accelerating vagal tonus after 5 km of running with CS (p ⩽ 0.05). In conclusion, music was able to activate the PFC area, minimize perceptions, improve performance, and accelerate recovery during 5 km of running.

Cerebral mechanisms underlying the effects of music during a fatiguing isometric ankle-dorsiflexion task.

The brain mechanisms by which music-related interventions ameliorate fatigue-related symptoms during the execution of fatiguing motor tasks are hitherto under-researched. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of music on brain electrical activity and psychophysiological measures during the execution of an isometric fatiguing ankle-dorsiflexion task performed until the point of volitional exhaustion. Nineteen healthy participants performed two fatigue tests at 40% of maximal voluntary contraction while listening to music or in silence. Electrical activity in the brain was assessed by use of a 64-channel EEG. The results indicated that music downregulated theta waves in the frontal, central, and parietal regions of the brain during exercise. Music also induced a partial attentional switching from associative thoughts to task-unrelated factors (dissociative thoughts) during exercise, which led to improvements in task performance. Moreover, participants experienced a more positive affective state while performing the isometric task under the influence of music.

Influence of music and its moments of application on performance and psychophysiological parameters during a 5km time trial

ABSTRA C T Objective. The purpose of this study was to verify the influence of music introduced in different moments in a 5-km time-trial cycling (TT5KM) on psychophysical variables. Methods. Ten trained cyclists participated in this study (24 ± 1 years; 73.5 ± 10.4 kg; 180 ± 12 cm). The participants performed the TT5KM in three distinct conditions: music during warm-up (MW), music during the protocol (MP) and control (C). During all conditions the time (T), power output (W), heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was evaluated and the mood state was assessed with the BRUMS questionnaire. After descriptive statistics, data normality was confirmed using the Shapiro-Wilk’s test. Mean performance, performance at each 500m, RPE at each 1000m and mood state were compared with ANOVA two way for repeated measures (moment x condition). The significance level was set at p 0.05), but there is a possibility of RPE to be smaller when the subject listen music during (90%) or before (93%) the test compared with control condition. Conclusion. Our results showed that regardless the time of application (i.e., before or during exercise), music did not affect performance and psychophysiological parameters during the TT5KM.

Psychophysiological Responses to Group Exercise Training Sessions: Does Exercise Intensity Matter?

Group exercise training programs were introduced as a strategy for improving health and fitness and potentially reducing dropout rates. This study examined the psychophysiological responses to group exercise training sessions. Twenty-seven adults completed two group exercise training sessions of moderate and vigorous exercise intensities in a random and counterbalanced order. The %HRR and the exertional and arousal responses to vigorous session were higher than those during the moderate session (p<0.05). Consequently, the affective responses to vigorous session were less pleasant than those during moderate session (p<0.05). These results suggest that the psychophysiological responses to group exercise training sessions are intensity-dependent. From an adherence perspective, interventionists are encouraged to emphasize group exercise training sessions at a moderate intensity to maximize affective responses and to minimize exertional responses, which in turn may positively affect future exercise behavior.

HOW MOTIVATIONAL AND CALM MUSIC MAY AFFECT THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX AREA AND EMOTIONAL RESPONSES: A FUNCTIONAL NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (fNIRS) STUDY.

Using functional near-infrared spectroscopy, the present study investigated how listening to differently valenced music is associated with changes in hemoglobin concentrations in the prefrontal cortex area, indicating changes in neural activity. Thirty healthy people (15 men; M age = 24.8yr., SD = 2.4; 15 women; M age = 25.2yr., SD = 3.1) participated. Prefrontal cortex activation, emotional responses (heart rate variability), and self-reported affective ratings were measured while listening to calm and motivational music. The songs were presented in a random counterbalanced order and separated by periods of white noise. Mixed-model repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) evaluated the relationships for main effects and interactions. The results showed that music was associated with increased activation of the prefrontal cortex area. For both sexes, listening to the motivational song was associated with higher vagal withdrawal (lower HR) than the calm song. As expected, participants rated the motivational song with greater affective valence and higher arousal. Effects persisted longer in men than in women. These findings suggest that both the characteristics of music and sex differences may significantly affect the results of emotional neuroimaging in samples of young adults.

Equal prefrontal cortex activation between males and females in a motor tasks and different visual imagery perspectives: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) study

The purpose of this study was to compare the prefrontal cortex (PFC) blood flow variation and time on in males and females while performing a motor task and imagery perspectives. Eighteen right handed subjects (11 males and 7 females) were volunteers to this study. All subjects went through three randomly conditions, a motor task condition (MT) in which they had to do a simple finger tap. The other conditions included practicing imagery in first and third views. During all the conditions, the fNIRS device was attached to the subject forehead to obtain the blood flow; the total time in each task which was measured with a chronometer. No difference had been found in any condition for both sexes in the PFC and time, nor for all subjects integrated in the PFC. Therefore, we conclu-de that both imageries can be used to mentally train a motor task, and probably both sexes can be benefited.(AU) O objetivo do estudo foi comparar a variacao sanguinea do cortex prefrontal (CPF) e o tempo de realizacao, durante uma tarefa motora e diferentes perspectivas de imagetica motora em homens e mulheres. Dezoito sujeitos destros (11 homens e 7 mulheres) foram voluntarios. Todos os sujeitos passaram por 3 condicoes randomicamente, uma tarefa motora que consistia em uma simples batida de dedos. As outras condicoes fora a pratica de imagetica motora em primeira e terceira pessoa. Durante todas as condicoes, um aparelho fNIRS foi acoplado a testa para obtencao do fluxo sanguineo; e o tempo total de cada tarefa foi obtido com um cronometro. Nenhuma diferenca foi encontrada em nenhuma condicao para ambos os generos no CPF e no tempo, bem como quanto considerados todos os sujeitos. Concluimos que ambas imageticas podem ser usadas para treinar mentalmente uma tarefa motora e que, provavelmente, ambos os generos podem se beneficiar da tecnica.(AU) El proposito de este estudio fue comparar la actividad de la corteza frontal (CF) y el tiempo del realizacion de una tarea motora en diferentes perspectivas del entrenamiento mental. Dieciocho participantes diestros (11 hombres y 7 mujeres) fueron voluntarios en este estudio. Todos los participantes realizaram tres condiciones aleatorias: tarea motora (TM), donde hicieron golpes con los dedos en una secuencia determinada. Las otras condiciones estaban practicando el entrenamiento mental vistas en primera y tercera persona. Durante todas las condiciones, el dispositivo fNIRS estaba unido a la frente del sujeto para obtener el flujo de sangre; el tiempo total de cada tarea se midio con un cronometro. Ninguna diferencia se habia encontrado en ninguna condicion para ambos sexos y el tiempo. Por lo tanto, llegamos a la conclusion de que ambas las formas de imaginacion pueden utilizar para entrenar mentalmente una tarea motora, y probablemente ambos generos pueden ser beneficiados.(AU)El proposito de este estudio fue comparar la actividad de la corteza frontal (CF) y el tiempo del realizacion de una tarea motora en diferentes perspectivas del entrenamiento mental. Dieciocho participantes diestros (11 hombres y 7 mujeres) fueron voluntarios en este estudio. Todos los participantes realizaram tres condiciones aleatorias: tarea motora (TM), donde hicieron golpes con los dedos en una secuencia determinada. Las otras condiciones estaban practicando el entrenamiento mental vistas en primera y tercera persona. Durante todas las condiciones, el dispositivo fNIRS estaba unido a la frente del sujeto para obtener el flujo de sangre; el tiempo total de cada tarea se midio con un cronometro. Ninguna diferencia se habia encontrado en ninguna condicion para ambos sexos y el tiempo. Por lo tanto, llegamos a la conclusion de que ambas las formas de imaginacion pueden utilizar para entrenar mentalmente una tarea motora, y probablemente ambos generos pueden ser beneficiados.

Interactive Effects of Music Tempi and Intensities on Grip Strength and Subjective Affect.

Pretask music is widely used by athletes albeit there is scant empirical evidence to support its use. The present study extended a line of work into pretask music by examining the interactive effects of music tempo and intensity (volume) on the performance of a simple motor skill and subjective affect. A 2 × 2 within‐subjects factorial design was employed with an additional no‐music control, the scores from which were used as a covariate. A sample of 52 male athletes (Mage = 26.1 ± 4.8 years) was exposed to five conditions: fast/loud (126 bpm/80 dBA), fast/quiet (126 bpm/70 dBA), slow/loud (87 bpm/80 dBA), slow/quiet (87 bpm/70 dBA) music, and a no‐music control. Dependent variables were grip strength, measured with a handgrip dynamometer, and subjective affect, assessed by use of the Affect Grid. The tempo and intensity components of music had interactive effects for grip strength but only main effects for subjective affect. Fast‐tempo music played at a high intensity yielded the highest grip strength, while fast‐tempo music played at a low‐intensity resulted in much lower grip strength (Mdiff. = −1.11 Force kg). For affective valence, there were main effects of tempo and intensity, with fast and loud music yielding the highest scores. For affective arousal, there was no difference between tempi although there was between intensities, with the high‐intensity condition yielding higher scores. The present findings indicate the utility of fast/loud pretask music in enhancing affective valence and arousal in preparation for a simple or gross motor task.

Psychophysiological effects of audiovisual stimuli during cycle exercise

Abstract Immersive environments induced by audiovisual stimuli are hypothesised to facilitate the control of movements and ameliorate fatigue-related symptoms during exercise. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of pleasant and unpleasant audiovisual stimuli on perceptual and psychophysiological responses during moderate-intensity exercises performed on an electromagnetically braked cycle ergometer. Twenty young adults were administered three experimental conditions in a randomised and counterbalanced order: unpleasant stimulus (US; e.g. images depicting laboured breathing); pleasant stimulus (PS; e.g. images depicting pleasant emotions); and neutral stimulus (NS; e.g. neutral facial expressions). The exercise had 10 min of duration (2 min of warm-up + 6 min of exercise + 2 min of warm-down). During all conditions, the rate of perceived exertion and heart rate variability were monitored to further understanding of the moderating influence of audiovisual stimuli on perceptual and psychophysiological responses, respectively. The results of the present study indicate that PS ameliorated fatigue-related symptoms and reduced the physiological stress imposed by the exercise bout. Conversely, US increased the global activity of the autonomic nervous system and increased exertional responses to a greater degree when compared to PS. Accordingly, audiovisual stimuli appear to induce a psychophysiological response in which individuals visualise themselves within the story presented in the video. In such instances, individuals appear to copy the behaviour observed in the videos as if the situation was real. This mirroring mechanism has the potential to up-/down-regulate the cardiac work as if in fact the exercise intensities were different in each condition.