Marcio Martins

Eficiência de armadilhas de queda (pitfall traps) em amostragens de anfíbios e répteis no Brasil

The effectiveness of pitfall traps associated with drift fences to capture amphibians and reptiles in three field studies, in Rio Grande do Sul (extreme southern Brazil), Sao Paulo (Sao Paulo, southeastern Brazil), and Amazonas (Amazonas, northern Brazil) is described. At Santa Maria, a total of 2040 amphibians and reptiles were caught in 30 pitfalls (200 L, with drift fence) during 18 months of study (capture efficiencies of 3.78 amphibians and reptiles/pitfall/month and 0.14 snake/pitfall/month). At Itirapina, Sao Paulo, 1262 amphibians and reptiles were obtained in 72 pitfalls (100 L, with drift fence) during six months (capture efficiencies of 11,9 amphibians and reptiles/pitfall/month and 0,38 snake/pitfall/month). At Rio Pitinga, Amazonas, over 600 amphibians and reptiles were caught in 50 pitfalls (100-150 L, with drift fence) during three months (capture efficiencies of ca. 4.00 amphibians and reptiles/pitfall/month and 0.87 snake/pitfall/month). Capture efficiencies of 1.25 to ~3.92 amphibians and reptiles/pitfall/month were obtained in four other unpublished studies made by other authors in Brazil, all of them using 20-35 L traps, either with or without drift fences. Higher capture efficiencies for snakes were obtained in those studies in which larger containers (100-200 L) were used. The results presented here indicate that pitfall traps are extremely useful to sample amphibians and reptiles in Brazil, especially anurans and lizards. From these results, it is possible to preview the capture of 125 to 1200 amphibians and reptiles with 100 pitfalls during one month, regardless of the size of the pitfalls and sampling design of the trap arrays. The main advantages and disadvantages of the method and detailed guidelines on how to design, install, and use the traps is discussed.

Amphibians of an open cerrado fragment in southeastern Brazil

The Cerrado encompasses ca. 2 million km 2 in Brazil. Most Cerrado areas have been greatly disturbed in the past decades. Only 20% of this biome remain undisturbed, and only 1.2% is protected. Knowledge on the biology and diversity of Cerrado amphibian assemblages is still incipient. Here we present natural history information (habitat use and reproductive activity) of 28 species of frogs from the Estacao Ecologica de Itirapina (EEI), and compare the composition of this assemblage with those of other Cerrado areas, other open areas, and a few forest areas throughout Brazil. We demonstrate that the Itirapina assemblage is more similar to those of other open areas than to those of forests, even when the latter are geographically closer. Six species occurred in the gallery forest at varying levels of dependence (three independent, two semidependent, and one totally dependent) while all other species occurred exclusively in open areas. For most species at EEI, reproduction was strongly synchronized with the onset of the rainy season, with the exception of Hypsiboas lundii, which called throughout the year, and Proceratophrys sp. which started calling prior to the beginning of the rainy season. The spatial and temporal patterns observed in this assemblage seem to reflect both ecological (e. g. hydroperiod of water bodies) and historical factors (e. g. early breeding in leptodactylids, late breeding in hylids, both phylogenetically constrained).

Diversity and evolution of macrohabitat use, body size and morphology in a monophyletic group of Neotropical pitvipers (Bothrops)

The Neotropical pitviper genus Bothrops comprises about 40 species, which occur in all main ecosystems of cis-Andean South America. We explored the relationships of body size and form (tail length and stoutness) with macrohabitat use in 20 forms of Bothrops. Semi-arboreal habits appeared only in forest forms. Semiarboreals are significantly more slender and have longer tails than terrestrials; body size is not significantly different between terrestrials and semi-arboreals. Within Bothrops, independent contrasts for macrohabitat use were significantly correlated with contrasts of tail size (positively) and stoutness (negatively); thus, the more arboreal the species, the longer its tail and the more slender its body. Contrasts of adult body size seems to remain constant over the lower range of macrohabitat use, but to decrease in species of Bothrops which are more arboreal. Reconstructions of character states indicate that: (1) the ancestor of Bothrops was a small, stout, terrestrial species; (2) semi-arboreal habits appeared one to three times in the genus; (3) a decrease in stoutness and an increase in tail length occurred along with an increase in arboreality in some clades. Although macrohabitat use seems to be important in determining body form in Bothrops, our results also indicate that tail size, stoutness and body size may also be affected by selective agents other than macrohabitat use. The selective agents responsible for the shifts in macrohabitat use in Bothrops are still uncertain, although they may have included prey availability and/or predation pressure. The plasticity of macrohabitat use, morphology and body size described in this study may have been key features that facilitated the highly successful ecological diversification of Bothrops in South America.

Composition and natural history of a Cerrado snake assemblage at Itirapina, São Paulo state, southeastern Brazil

As taxocenoses de serpentes neotropicais apresenta m alta riqueza de especies e estruturas complexas. O Cerrado e o segundo maior bioma do Brasil e foi incluido entre os 25 hotspots globais de biodiversidade. No sudeste do Brasil, as areas remanescentes de Cerrado tem sofrido intensa destruicao, e atualmente restam menos de 2% da vegetacao natural de Cerrado no estado de Sao Paulo. Praticamente nenhum estudo detalhado sobre serpentes do Cerrado foi realizado nesta regiao. A regiao de Itirapina apresenta um dos ultimos remanescentes bem preservados de cerrado aberto no estado de Sao Paulo. Nosso objetivo neste trabalho foi o estudo da historia natural e composicao das serpentes de Cerrado da regiao de Itirapina. Nos realizamos uma amostragem de campo extensiva combinando seis metodos de amostragem na Estacao Ecologica de Itirapina e areas alteradas de Cerrado nas proximidades (municipios de Itirapina e Brotas), em 101 viagens durante 43 meses, entre setembro de 1998 e marco de 2002, o que correspondeu a 446 dias de amostragem de campo. Tambem coletamos dados adicionais a partir de especimes de colecoes cientificas. Apresentamos dados sobre tamanho, abundância geral, uso do ambiente e substrato, atividade diaria e sazonal, dieta, reproducao e defesa. Tambem comparamos a taxocenose de serpentes de Itirapina com nove taxocenoses de serpentes do Brasil, incluindo a Amazonia, Mata Atlântica, Cerrado e outras formacoes abertas. Registramos na regiao de Itirapina 36 especies de serpentes entre 755 individuos encontrados no campo e seis registros de colecoes cientificas e literatura, pertencentes a 25 generos de cinco familias. As comparacoes entre taxocenoses indicam que o Cerrado apresenta uma identidade propria em relacao a composicao de especies de serpentes. Apesar de limitada a um pequeno fragmento (cerca de 2.300 ha), a Estacao Ecologica de Itirapina apresenta fisionomias conservadas e representativas de Cerrado, que abrigam uma fauna de serpentes rica e tipica do Cerrado. A ocorrencia de algumas especies apenas no interior da reserva tambem indica que a Estacao Ecologica de Itirapina e de importância fundamental para a manutencao da biodiversidade do Cerrado.Neotropical snake assemblages present high species richness and complex structures. The Cerrado is the second largest biome in Brazil, and was included among the 25 Worlds biodiversity hotspots. In southeastern Brazil, the remnant Cerrado areas have suffered intense destruction, and presently less than 2% of Cerrado natural vegetation remain in Sao Paulo state. Virtually no detailed study on Cerrado snakes was carried out in this region. The Itirapina region has one of the last well preserved remnants of open cerrado in Sao Paulo state. Our purpose in this work was the study of natural history and composition of the Cerrado snakes of Itirapina region. We performed an extensive field sampling combining six sampling methods in Estacao Ecologica de Itirapina and disturbed Cerrado areas in its surroundings (municipalities of Itirapina and Brotas), during 101 trips throughout 43 months, between September 1998 and March 2002, corresponding to 446 days of field sampling. We also collected additional data from museum specimens housed in scientific collections. We present data on size, general abundance, habitat and macrohabitat use, daily and seasonal activity, feeding, reproduction, and defense. We also compared the Itirapina snake assemblage with nine snake assemblages of Brazil, from Amazonia, Atlantic Forest, Cerrado, and other open habitats. We recorded a total of 36 snake species among 755 individuals found in the field and six records from scientific collections and literature, belonging to 25 genera and five families. The snake assemblage comparisons indicate that the Cerrado has its own identity regarding the snake composition. Although small (about 2,300 ha), the Estacao Ecologica de Itirapina encompasses well preserved and representative Cerrado physiognomic forms, which harbors a rich and typical Cerrado snake fauna. The occurrence of some species only inside the reserve also indicates that the Estacao Ecologica de Itirapina is of fundamental importance to the maintenance of Cerrado biodiversity.

Vocalizations and reproductive behaviour in the smith frog, Hyla faber Wied (Amphibia: Hylidae)

Vocalizations and reproductive behaviour of HylaJaber were studied for five months at Campinas, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Advertisement, distress calls, and two types of territorial vocalizations of adult Hyla Jaber are described and figured for the first time. One of the territorial calls and the distress call were variable in pulse repetition rate, frequency and duration, and may represent graded territorial and distress com- munication systems. Hyla Jaber males built nests for egg deposition and defended territories from other males. Males called from inside the nests till a female approached. Males then left the nests and guided the females to them. Females inspected the nests before amplexus occurred. While in amplexus, females renovated the nests. Tadpoles showed gregarious behaviour inside the nest and stayed there until approx- imately stage 25. Parental nest guarding was not observed.

Escalated aggressive behaviour and facultative parental care in the nest building gladiator frog, Hyla faber

Departamento de Zoologia Instituto de Biociencias Universidade Estadual Paulista, Caixa Postal 199, 13506-900 Rio Claro, SP

Ecology of Bothrops neuwiedi pauloensis (Serpentes: Viperidae: Crotalinae) in the Brazilian Cerrado

Abstract We provide ecological information on Bothrops neuwiedi pauloensis (Amaral, 1925) regarding geographical distribution, habitat use, biometry, feeding habits, and reproduction, based on field studies and analysis of 175 preserved specimens. Bothrops n. pauloensis is endemic to the Brazilian Cerrado, where it occurs in open, seasonally dry savannas. Sexes are dimorphic in body length, relative tail length and relative body mass, but not in relative head length or diet. A wide array of prey, from centipedes to rodents, is consumed, and there is an ontogenetic dietary shift from ectotherms to endotherms. Prey-predator mass ratios ranged from 0.006–0.571. Although prey mass increased with snake mass, large snakes also ate many small prey. There was no difference in relative prey mass between sexes. Reproduction was highly seasonal, with a long vitellogenic period. Embryos were found only from October to December (rainy season). Litter size ranged from 4–20, and was dependent on female size. Although B. n. pauloensis occupies seasonally dry savannas, its ecological characteristics are similar to those described for Bothrops species inhabiting forested habitats.

A NEW INSULAR SPECIES OF PITVIPER FROM BRAZIL, WITH COMMENTS ON EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF THE BOTHROPS JARARACA GROUP (SERPENTES, VIPERIDAE)

We describe a new pitviper species, Bothrops alcatraz, of the Bothrops jararaca group, from Alcatrazes Island, off the coast of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil. It differs from the mainland coastal populations of B. jararaca in southeastern Brazil mostly by its darker coloration; smaller size; lower number of ventrals, subcaudals, and infralabials; number and shape of anterior cephalic scales; shape of hemipenis spines; intense coagulant activity of venom; and three specific venom proteins. From Bothrops insularis, another island species from southeastern Brazil, the new species differs mainly by its color pattern, smaller size, lower number of subcaudals in males, and absence of hemiclitoris in females. Bothrops alcatraz presents some features that may be viewed as paedomorphic within the B. jararaca group, such as small adult size, proportionally large eyes, intense coagulant venom activity, and diet composed of centipedes and lizards. We postulate that the dwarfism and characteristics of venom in B. alcatraz may be related to its diet (similar to that of juveniles of the mainland B. jararaca). Bothrops alcatraz and B. insularis may have originated through the isolation of populations of a B. jararaca-like ancestor on the Alcatrazes and Queimada Grande islands, respectively. The new species is regarded as critically endangered due to its very small area of occurrence and the declining quality of its habitat. Resumo Uma espécie nova de viperídeo, Bothrops alcatraz, pertencente ao grupo jararaca, é descrita da Ilha de Alcatrazes, situada na costa de São Paulo no sudeste do Brasil. Esta espécie difere das populações continentais da costa do sudeste do Brasil pela coloração mais escura, menor tamanho, menor número de escamas ventrais, subcaudais e infra-labiais, número e forma das placas cefálicas anteriores e formato dos espinhos do hemipênis, além da intensa atividade coagulante e da presença de três proteínas específicas do veneno. A espécie nova difere de Bothrops insularis, outra espécie insular de jararaca do sudeste do Brasil, pelo padrão de coloração, menor tamanho, menor número de subcaudais em machos e ausência de hemiclitoris em fêmeas. Algumas características de B. alcatraz, como o tamanho pequeno do adulto, os olhos proporcionalmente grandes, a intensa atividade coagulante do veneno e a dieta composta por centopéias e lagartos, podem ser interpretadas como pedomórficas dentro do grupo jararaca. Sugerimos aqui que o pequeno tamanho e as características do veneno de B. alcatraz estejam relacionados à sua dieta (semelhante à dos juvenis de B. jararaca do continente), o que pode ser resposta à diferente disponibilidade de tipos de presas na Ilha de Alcatrazes (especialmente a ausência de pequenos mamíferos). Bothrops alcatraz e B. insularis podem ter se originado através do isolamento de populações ancestrais semelhantes a B. jararaca nas ilhas de Alcatrazes e Queimada Grande, respectivamente. A espécie nova é considerada como criticamente ameaçada devido a sua pequena área de ocorrência e o declínio da qualidade de habitat.

Anuran Species Composition and Distribution Patterns in Brazilian Cerrado, a Neotropical Hotspot

ABSTRACT. Species distribution patterns result from the combination of multiple factors acting over different spatial and temporal scales. We analyze the distribution patterns of anuran amphibians within the Cerrado domain of South America in a historical framework. First, we provide an updated list of species based on extensive research in zoological collections and fieldwork. We then explore patterns of endemism and the distribution of species occurring both in Cerrado and each of the adjoining domains, providing directions for future hypotheses tests. We found 209 anuran species occurring in localities within Cerrado. Among them, 150 are primarily associated with Cerrado, and 59 are typical of one of the Cerrado adjoining domains. Widespread species account for only 14% of the Cerrado typical species. Species occurring in Cerrado and one adjoining domain present a highly structured spatial pattern in which Amazonian species are restricted to the northwestern Cerrado, Atlantic species to the southeastern Cerrado, Caatinga species to the northeastern Cerrado, and Chaco species to the southwestern Cerrado. Cerrado endemics occur in most localities and in all regions, whereas narrow endemics (< 60,000 km2) are restricted to mountain ranges in central, southeastern, and southwestern Cerrado. The limited distribution of species shared with one of the four adjoining domains highlights the influence of independent species pools more associated with other domains.

The lizards of Balbina, Central Amazonia, Brazil : a qualitative analysis of resource utilization

Twenty one species of lizards (four families) were found in the region of Balbina Hydroelectric Station, Uatuma river, 60 km east of Presidente Figueiredo, Amazonas State, Brazil. Most lizards are exclusive forest dwellers exploring horizontal, vertical, or both spaces. Twenty species are diurnal and one is nocturnal; no marked seasonal difference in activity was observed. Except for the known food specialists Iguana iguana (leaves) and Plica umbra (ants), and the omnivorous Tupinambis nigropunctatus, all other species seem to be arthropod generalists. Three guilds with widely overlapping resource utilization are evident. These patterns are very similar to those found in other localities in the Amazon Basin, probably because of the similarity among their herpetofaunas and structural habitats. A brief review of the hypothesis that tries to explain how the members of these complex assemblages coexist shows that, although some authors suggest that competition is weak or inexists in these assemblages, there i...