Marco van Gelderen

Explaining Entrepreneurial Intentions by Means of the Theory of Planned Behaviour

– This paper sets out to present a detailed empirical investigation of the entrepreneurial intentions of business students. The authors employ the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), in which intentions are regarded as resulting from attitudes, perceived behavioural control, and subjective norms., – The methodology used was a replication study among samples of undergraduate students of business administration at four different universities (total n=1,225). Five operationalisations of intentions are used as well as a composite measure. Prior to the main study, qualitative research conducted at two other universities (total n=373) was held to operationalise the components of the TPB., – The results show that the two most important variables to explain entrepreneurial intentions are entrepreneurial alertness and the importance attached to financial security., – Various research design features are used that result in better and more detailed explanations of entrepreneurial intentions., – Should one want to stimulate entrepreneurship in educational or training settings, then this papers results provide guidance. Several suggestions are offered on how entrepreneurial alertness can be improved and financial security concerns can be reduced., – The study provides detailed and solid results on entrepreneurial intentions which are positioned in the career literature.

Predicting Entrepreneurial Behaviour: A Test of the Theory of Planned Behaviour

This article contributes to the occupational choice literature pertaining to entrepreneurship by applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to predict entrepreneurial behaviour. Originating from social psychology, the TPB posits that intention, a function of behavioural beliefs, is a significant predictor of subsequent behaviour. In spite of an established stream of scholarship explaining the formation of entrepreneurial intentions, empirical research has not yet employed longitudinal data to examine whether the intention to start a business measured at one point of time translates into subsequent entrepreneurial behaviour. This article provides a full test of the TPB in the prediction of business start-up intentions and subsequent behaviour based on two-wave survey data (2006 and 2009) from the working-age population in Finland. The econometric results support the predictions outlined in the TPB: attitude, perceived behavioural control and subjective norms are significant predictors of entrepreneurial intention; and intention and perceived behavioural control are significant predictors of subsequent behaviour. This research thus provides support to the application of the TPB and the concept of behavioural intention to understand the emergence of complex economic behaviour such as entrepreneurship prior to the onset of any observable action.

Robustness of the Theory of Planned Behavior in Predicting Entrepreneurial Intentions and Actions

This analysis demonstrates the relevance and robustness of the theory of planned behavior in the prediction of business start–up intentions and subsequent behavior based on longitudinal survey data (2011 and 2012; n = 969) from the adult population in Austria and Finland. By doing so, the study addresses two weaknesses in current research: the limited scope of samples used in the majority of prior studies and the scarcity of investigations studying the translation of entrepreneurial intentions into behavior. The paper discusses conceptual and methodological issues related to studying the intention–behavior relationship and outlines avenues for future research.

Autonomy as a start-up motive

Purpose – Autonomy is a primary motive for a large majority of small business starters. As an explanation of why people want their own (autonomous) business it is tautological. This study sets out to focus on an explanation of the autonomy motive itself: why small business starters want autonomy.Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected using semi‐structured interviews with a sample of 167 nascent entrepreneurs.Findings – There are two types of autonomy motives: a proximal motive which is associated with task characteristics of being self‐employed (decisional freedom), and distal motives for which autonomy is instrumental (to avoid a boss or restrictions; to act in a self‐endorsed and self‐congruent manner; and to be in charge).Research limitations/implications – Autonomy measures should either operationalise autonomy only in a proximal sense without regard to underlying motive sources, or take distal motives into account and offer items that reflect these autonomy motive sources.Practical implica...

Strategies, Uncertainty and Performance of Small Business Startups

Personal strategies of owners/founders of small business startups are related to performance and to environmental uncertainty. This is done using a longitudinal data set. Personal strategies are operationalized by a behavioral measure of the manners in which small business founders deal with situations. The results suggest a dynamic process between strategy and performance. Business owners that perform poorly employ a Reactive Strategy, with poor performance leading to increased use of reactive behavior. High performing business owners start out focussing on the most crucial issues (Critical Point Strategy), with high performance leading to a more top-down (Complete Planning) approach. These relations are controlled for characteristics of the environment of the firm. Strategy use is dependent upon the type and level of environmental uncertainty. Complete Planning strategy is used less frequently in a fast changing environment and more often in a complex environment. Use of Opportunistic Strategy is negatively related to the complexity of the environment, while the Reactive Strategy is used more frequently in a non-munificent environment.

Autonomy as the Guiding Aim of Entrepreneurship Education

Purpose – This paper has three purposes: first, to present a vision of entrepreneurship education that has the students capacity for autonomous action as its ultimate aim; second, to convince the reader of the timeliness and relevance of such an approach; third, to outline how this can be implemented.Design/methodology/approach – The paper integrates several strands of literature: research on entrepreneurial autonomy, educational psychology, and entrepreneurship education.Findings – The importance of autonomy is suggested by research on entrepreneurial motivation and satisfaction, as well as by a range of societal trends that favour increased self‐reliance. Two perspectives, self‐determination theory and self‐directed learning, provide leads about how to put autonomy centre stage in entrepreneurship education. Several implementation‐related issues are discussed. These include trade‐offs between guidance and freedom, information and pressure, the self and others, and choice and relevance; the effects of s...

Perseverance Strategies for Enterprising Individuals

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to arrive at a conceptual understanding of perseverance processes in the context of enterprising behavior and to outline readily employable perseverance strategies for situations characterized by obstacles, challenges and setbacks.Design/methodology/approach – This paper presents a process model of perseverance, drawing on elements of control theory and appraisal theory.Findings – From this model, a variety of perseverance strategies within four broad categories is derived: strategies that affect adversity itself; strategies that change the way adversity is perceived; strategies that reframe the aim that adversity has made difficult to attain; and strategies that help to increase self‐regulatory strength. James Dysons biography provides examples for the strategies.Practical implications – The paper discusses a broad variety of strategies to help individuals persevere in reaching their enterprising goals.Originality/value – Although it is a widely held perception tha...

Home-Based Internet Businesses as Drivers of Variety

The paper shows how and why Home-Based Internet Businesses are drivers of variety. This paper argues, by means of five theoretical perspectives, that because of the variety HBIBs generate, they contribute to the economy over and above their direct and indirect contributions in terms of revenue and employment. A multiple case study approach is employed studying the best practices of eight HBIBs. It is found that HBIBs generate variety because of the unique way in which they operate, and because of the reasons why they are started. How HBIBs operate can be captured in the acronym SMILES: Speed, Multiple income, Inexpensive, LEan, and Smart. They are founded (amongst other motives) for reasons of autonomy, freedom and independence. Both aspects - the how and why - of HBIBs are conducive to the creation of variety as they facilitate trial-and-error commercialization of authentic ideas. Five theoretical perspectives posit that variety is important for the industry and the economy: evolutionary theory, strategic management, organic urban planning, opportunity recognition, and the knowledge economy. The findings are discussed in the context of each perspective.

Country of origin as a source of business opportunities

This paper presents an idea-generation tool that aims to help immigrants to recognise opportunities for self-employment. The tool is based on the literatures on opportunity-recognition and on immigrant entrepreneurship. Research has shown that the ideas for possible business opportunities that people generate depend to a large extent on prior knowledge. For immigrants, the country of origin is a vital source of opportunities, since much of their prior knowledge pertains to their home country. In this research, an attempt is made to systematically categorise opportunities deriving from the country of origin. Then, a second step is taken by mapping all categories of opportunities on a human figure (thus literally creating a model). The areas of the body represent opportunity categories, from the feet (import-export opportunities) to the top of the head (styles of haircutting pertaining to country of origin). As a result, a visual, easy-to-understand, highly accessible instrument is created.

Meaning in life as an opportunity for enterprise

This papers starting point is the idea that a market for meaning in life exists that consists of several submarkets. Suppose someone wants to enter this market with a business or organization that tries to alleviate meaninglessness. How can the person shape the proposition that he or she wants to offer? We propose that Baumeisters (1992) theory of needs for meaning can serve as a useful tool. Baumeister states that meaning is generated when the needs for a goal, fulfillment, context, control, and self-worth are simultaneously met. Taking the market for alternative spiritual courses as a case example, we show that this theory is adequate for describing the variety of alternative spiritual courses in terms of a limited number of meaning models. Would-be providers on the market for meaning in life can create propositions by following, reordering, or creating meaning models. Examples of such propositions are given for a number of submarkets.