Margaret S. Osborne

Cognitive processes in music performance anxiety

Music performance anxiety has been investigated either as a discrete phenomenon, or as a variant of social phobia. This study examined the theoretical adequacy of establishing music performance anxiety as a subtype of social phobia, using Rapee and Heimbergs (1997) model of anxiety in social-evaluative situations to account for the cognitions experienced by anxious individuals in solo musical performances. Similarities between the two phenomena in terms of important cognitive processes were revealed in a sample of 84 musicians. The two cognitive constructs in the model deemed to be critical to social phobia were also the only two constructs predicting music performance anxiety. It is concluded that social phobic models may provide a valid account of the cognitive processes occurring in music performance anxiety. These results are combined with additional epidemiological and etiological information in a cognitive conceptualisation of music performance anxiety.

Assessment of music performance anxiety in late childhood: A validation study of the Music Performance Anxiety Inventory for Adolescents (MPAI-A).

The Music Performance Anxiety Inventory for Adolescents (MPAI–A), the first standardized measure of music performance anxiety (MPA) for adolescents, was developed using an Australian sample of 381 talented young musicians, ages 12 to 19 years. This study validates the MPAI–A on a younger sample of 84 band musicians from the United States, ages 11 to 13 years. The MPAI–A was reliable (Cronbach’s .91) and valid for this sample. Construct validity was demonstrated by significant positive relationships with measures of social phobia and trait anxiety. These results are comparable to the findings of the original sample and support the use of this instrument as a screening tool for MPA in young musicians.

Psychological intervention reduces self-reported performance anxiety in high school music students

Music performance anxiety (MPA) can be distressing for many young people studying music, and may negatively impact upon their ability to cope with the demands and stressors of music education. It can also lead young people to give up music or to develop unhealthy coping habits in their adult music careers. Minimal research has examined the effectiveness of psychological programs to address MPA in young musicians. Sixty-two adolescents were pseudo-randomized to a cognitive behavioral (CB) group-delivered intervention or a waitlist condition. The intervention consisted of psychoeducation, cognitive restructuring and relaxation techniques, identification of strengths, goal-setting, imagery and visualization techniques to support three solo performances in front of judges. Significant reductions in self-rated MPA were found in both groups following the intervention and compared to their baseline MPA. This reduction was maintained at 2-months follow-up. There appeared to be inconsistent effects of the intervention upon judge-rated MPA, however the presence of floor effects precluded meaningful reductions in MPA. There appeared to be no effect of the intervention upon judge-rated performance quality. This study highlights the potential for group-based CB programs to be delivered within school music curricula to help young musicians develop skills to overcome the often debilitating effects of MPA.

Impact of a Cognitive-Behavioural Treatment Program on Music Performance Anxiety in Secondary School Music Students: A Pilot Study

This study assessed the effectiveness of a combined individual and group cognitive-behavioural treatment (CBT) program to reduce music performance anxiety (MPA) in adolescent musicians. Twenty-three adolescents with high MPA from a selective high school were randomly assigned to either a seven-session intervention program or a behaviour-exposure-only control group. The intervention consisted of psychoeducation, goal setting, cognitive restructuring, relaxation training and behavioural exposure in the form of two solo performances with audience. Outcome measures included self-reports of MPA, trait and state anxiety, diagnostic interview for social phobia, heart rate, frontalis EMG, and performance quality. Significant improvements in self-reported MPA were observed at posttest for adherent students only (i.e., students who were actively engaged in the program and who adopted program techniques). Adherent students also had higher MPA at commencement. Non-adherent and behaviour-exposure-only students both showed reductions in MPA over the study period but not to the same degree as adherent students. There appeared to be no effect of CBT on performance quality.

Motivation to study music in Australian schools: The impact of music learning, gender, and socio-economic status

This study extends an eight-country mapping exercise (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; see Research Studies in Music Education issues 2010–2011) to include students’ motivation to study music within the Australian context. It sought to determine whether music learners (students learning an instrument or voice), might be more motivated to study academic subjects at school, and whether gender and socio-economic status (SES) affected student motivation to learn music at school. A total of 2,727 students from grades 5 to 12 completed a questionnaire based on Eccles and Wigfield’s expectancy-value framework. Data collected included: ratings of competence beliefs, interest, importance, usefulness and difficulty for music, English, maths, and science; indications of whether the students were currently learning a musical instrument or voice (music learners); and whether they would like to if given the opportunity. There was an overall significant decline in competence beliefs, interest, importance, and usefulness across the school years, in contrast with increased task difficulty ratings across the school years. Music learners reported significantly higher competence beliefs, interest, importance, usefulness, and less task difficulty than non-music learners. This advantage applied across all school grades for music, competence beliefs for English in upper primary and lower secondary school grades, and for maths in lower secondary grades. Although females reported music as more important and useful than males, their competence beliefs and task difficulty ratings were equivalent. Music was considered slightly less interesting for females than for males. The value of music as a subject declined significantly for upper SES students from upper primary to lower secondary schools. The greatest number of participants (40.8%) who expressed a desire to learn a musical instrument came from the lower SES category in upper primary school. This is an important result in the Australian context, indicating that this may be a positive time to recruit learners. This study provides new information regarding the relationship between motivation and desire to learn a musical instrument across school grades, gender, and socio-economic factors.

Exploring the academic and psychosocial impact of El Sistema-inspired music programs within two low socio-economic schools

We sought to understand the potential for positive non-musical outcomes for economically and socially disadvantaged primary school students who are involved in instrumental music learning programs. Two schools with students experiencing generational poverty, current or first-generation immigrant or refugee status who were running El-Sistema inspired music programs participated in the study. Ninety-two students in Years 3–6 completed audio-visual assessments of non-verbal reasoning, verbal and mathematical ability, and psychosocial well-being. Comparisons by school and program participation over a period of 12 months, indicate improved non-verbal (visuo-spatial) reasoning, verbal and mathematical skills, and psychosocial well-being for students at School 1. Findings indicate some evidence of positive outcomes for low socio-economic status and socially disadvantaged children who participate in El Sistema-inspired extra-curricular music programs. Given the substantial number of students involved in such programs worldwide, these findings suggest outcomes for disadvantaged students may be improved through music learning opportunities.

Building performance confidence

Should we be concerned about performance anxiety in child and adolescent musicians? Studies suggest we should, as up to 75% of students experience some form of performance anxiety (Britsch, 2005). Given that most people learn how to play and perform music during their school years, knowledge of how to cope with music performance anxiety (MPA) at this time is crucial for satisfactory engagement with music, whether or not they wish to continue with a music career. Performance anxiety is the most significant psychological issue for performing musicians of any age (Kenny, 2011), and can be a significant blow to the psychological well-being and optimal performance of a young performer. Many young people choose to leave formal music education as they enter adolescence (McPherson, Davidson, & Faulkner, 2012). This is at odds with older and more experienced musicians who are more likely to remain engaged in the act of performing even if it feels aversive, rather than avoiding or escaping it, in a phenomenon described by Senyshyn and O’Neill (2001) as “creative yearning.” It may be that “creative yearning” reflects a strong personal investment in performing, such that a musician’s desire to approach the act of performing (remain in the field) remains stronger than their desire to avoid it (leave the field) (Dollard & Miller, 1950). Sadly, if a young musician becomes overwhelmed by negative emotions due to their inability to control them or play despite them, they may eventually discontinue performing altogether, even if they have not experienced any serious performance breakdowns (Kenny, 2011). Considering that musical identities moderate musical development in young musicians (Hargreaves, MacDonald, & Miell, 2012), the musical identities of child and adolescent musicians may be too fragile to remain in the field alongside the plethora of aversive emotions, thoughts, and physiological responses they may experience with MPA. Therefore, children and adolescents might require less trauma or distressing anxiety to decide that they no longer wish to remain in the performance “field,” and choose to avoid performing and/or music learning altogether. Using a hypothetical case study of a young musician named Louise, this chapter will illuminate both the debilitating and facilitating aspects of performance anxiety. Current methods to conceive and measure MPA are discussed, including the unclear relationship between MPA and performance quality, before moving into a review of psychological strategies to manage MPA in this age group. The chapter finishes with a summary of practical strategies to overcome performance anxiety which can be used by parents, teachers, and students to help young musicians become more confident in managing performance anxiety and achieve their performance potential. In Year 5, Louise started learning the clarinet. In order to play comfortably and reduce her anxiety she preferred to perform in a group, or pieces that were technically below her standard and very highly practiced to people that she knew well. At the start of high school she was asked to play a solo at school assembly. She had never performed in the school auditorium before to such a large audience who were also her new peers. She was shy and anxious in daily life, which increased as she entered adolescence. Louise was exceedingly worried about her ability to perform well. Her instrumental teacher and parents simply said, “Don’t worry, everyone gets nervous performing,”

Applying self-regulated learning microanalysis to study musicians’ practice

This article describes the development of a music practice microanalysis protocol that is based on the three-phase model of self-regulated learning (i.e., Forethought, Performance, and Self-Reflection). Up until now, most studies on music practice have tended to focus on behavioural aspects. The expanded view presented here outlines a technique for mapping the types of behaviours (actions), cognition (thoughts), and affect (feelings) that can help focus musicians’ practice. To explain the technique, we describe the practice of two first year Bachelor of Music students studying at a prominent university music school who are compared at three time points across one semester as they prepare an étude for a performance exam. These case studies demonstrate two broadly contrasting self-regulated learning profiles of how microanalysis can be used to cue students to think about what they are doing and then reflect critically on the strategies they can use to improve their playing. As a technique, microanalysis can inform educational interventions aimed at breaking the cycle of habits that typify musical practice by encouraging musicians to become more behaviourally, metacognitively, and motivationally involved in their own learning.

Engagement and Skill Development through an Innovative Classroom Music Program.

Rates of music participation are low in developed nations. This may be attributed in part to the failure of school music to engage children sufficiently to motivate them to continue learning and participating in music. We tested the Harmonix program of classroom music education, which is currently being designed to maximize engagement in music learning. The program employs a set of new, harmonically tuned percussion instruments, using cyclical, self-cuing patterns, and hierarchical rhythmic structures that match complexity with ability. Graphical scores reduce cognitive load, and assist students to compose music from the first class. Cooperative learning activities consolidate learning and further stimulate engagement through personal and group expression. Using a combination of timely self-report and objective measurement, we found that student learning and skill acquisition increased over the six-week program while high engagement was maintained. Engagement measures also increased within each session. Over the six weeks of the program no significant changes were observed in attitudes toward music.

Precompetitive appraisal, performance anxiety and confidence in conservatorium musicians: A case for coping

The way musicians appraise their abilities to succeed in a forthcoming evaluative performance impacts on the range of emotions they will experience. According to Lazarus’ cognitive-motivational-relational theory, emotions may wield powerful consequences depending on whether the performance is interpreted as a threat (high importance/primary appraisal; low coping prospects/secondary appraisal), or challenge (high importance; high coping prospects). Thirty-six Bachelor of Music students at a large University music school completed an adaptation of the Precompetitive Appraisal Measure (PAM) and Competitive State Anxiety Inventory–2R-D twice in relation to their end-of-semester recital: at the start of semester, and within an hour before their recital. Primary and secondary appraisals formed theoretically consistent and reliable evaluations of threat and challenge. Secondary appraisals were significantly lower for students who viewed the performance as a threat. Students who viewed the performance as a challenge reported significantly less cognitive anxiety and higher self-confidence. Findings indicate that the PAM is a brief and reliable measure of cognitive appraisals that trigger precompetitive emotions of anxiety and confidence which can be used to identify those performers who could benefit from pre-performance intervention strategies to manage performance stress.