Margareta Ihse

Reserves, Resilience and Dynamic Landscapes

Abstract In a world increasingly modified by human activities, the conservation of biodiversity is essential as insurance to maintain resilient ecosystems and ensure a sustainable flow of ecosystem goods and services to society. However, existing reserves and national parks are unlikely to incorporate the long-term and large-scale dynamics of ecosystems. Hence, conservation strategies have to actively incorporate the large areas of land that are managed for human use. For ecosystems to reorganize after large-scale natural and human-induced disturbances, spatial resilience in the form of ecological memory is a prerequisite. The ecological memory is composed of the species, interactions and structures that make ecosystem reorganization possible, and its components may be found within disturbed patches as well in the surrounding land-scape. Present static reserves should be complemented with dynamic reserves, such as ecological fallows and dynamic successional reserves, that are part of ecosystem management mimicking natural disturbance regimes at the landscape level.

Swedish agricultural landscapes : patterns and changes during the last 50 years, studied by aerial photos

Abstract This paper describes the agricultural landscapes in Sweden and their development in historical and modern time. Most emphasis is placed on the spatial pattern and changes of grassland and small biotopes. Changes in field size, linear elements and point elements in grasslands and wetlands are described and illustrated by air photos and maps as interpreted in aerial photos from the last 50 years. The grasslands are found to be the most important ecological structure, and their changes are subjected to detailed analysis. Grasslands and grassland species are found in patches of meadows and pastures, in linear elements such as road verges, border zones along streams, ditches and stone walls and in point objects such as habitat islands and around ponds. The different test areas were chosen to describe the consequences for flora and fauna, the grassland flora, birds and field game.

Biotope patterns in urban areas: a conceptual model integrating biodiversity issues in spatial planning

We present a model that considers the spatial aspects of biodiversity in urban planning. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is used as a study area. The model comprises three steps of strategic selection: (1) information sources; (2) target biotopes, and (3) presentation strategies adapted to priorities in spatial planning. A classification system based on the interpretation of colour infrared aerial photographs was developed. Established methods for the study of woodland and agricultural landscapes were merged and modified in order to fit the present objectives. Ecologically valuable biotopes were found both in green and built-up areas. The methods developed have been used in the comprehensive planning of Stockholm to designate the core areas and the zones in the surrounding landscape with different demands for spatial planning. The model to support urban planners with context-sensitive planning tools was sufficiently flexible for the adaptation to the conditions of each individual area and the level of detail suited to the planning situation. It also provided information on the effects of fragmentation, creating a platform for meaningful follow-up work.

Development of European landscapes

This editorial paper analyses comprehensive information presented on International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE) European Conference “Development of European Landscapes” jointly organized by the University of Stockholm and University of Tartu, held in both Stockholm, Sweden, 30 June–2 July 2001, and in Tartu, Estonia, 3–6 July 2001. Selected conference findings from oral presentations and posters are presented here. About 130 oral presentations and 50 posters representing 33 countries were presented during the conference. Sixteen papers published as part of this special issue of Landscape and Urban Planning, and summarized here, deal with general and methodological principles of the landscape analysis and research, and also, present case studies on landscape ecology, planning and management from various European countries.

A methodological study for biotope and landscape mapping based on CIR aerial photographs

In this paper, we present a method for base-line mapping of biotope and landscape elements in the rural Swedish agricultural landscape. The overall goal is to elaborate a classification system for ...

A holistic model for landscape ecology in practice: the Swedish survey and management of ancient meadows and pastures

The survey conducted under the Ancient Meadows and Pastures project represents a new approach in nature conservation in Sweden, where natural and cultural heritage values were inventoried and analysed in an integrated holistic approach between 1985 and 1997. The model for the survey, developed jointly by researchers and planners, is composed of four steps: methodological development of data collection; national survey and regional ranking; national analysis; and applications. This paper describes the conceptual model, the methodological development and national analysis. The method development is composed of strategic selection of criteria for natural and cultural values, development of classification systems, development of techniques for aerial photo interpretation, methods for fieldwork and description, evaluation and ranking. The data collection is based on interpretation in stereo pairs of colour infrared (CIR) aerial photographs with selection of potentially valuable meadows and pastures which are inventoried and checked in the field for cultural-historical nature types, cultural elements, vegetation types and selected indicator species of vascular plants. They are also described from a holistic landscape ecological perspective, integrating the cultural and biological components within the entire landscape and, finally, ranked for nature conservation into four classes. The evaluation emphasises botanical values together with long-term continuity in land-use and management, underpinned with cultural components. The national analysis showed that nearly 200,000 ha of ancient meadows and pastures are well managed and of high value. They are distributed among more than 17,000 objects and 22 cultural-historical nature types. Most were pastures (98%). The result is not only increased knowledge of the distribution of ancient meadows and pastures and a high number of well-managed pasture landscapes throughout Sweden, but also a change in attitude among farmers, towards more positive attitudes to nature conservation and biodiversity and understanding of the cultural landscape. This project has had an important influence, because it is used in regional nature conservation work, has formed the principal basis of several thousands of management agreements with farmers, is used in policy work in the national nature protection plan and in the biodiversity action plan. The database also provides a good foundation for research in cultural landscapes, biodiversity and landscape ecology.

Colour infrared aerial photography as a tool for vegetation mapping and change detection in environmental studies of Nordic ecosystems: A review

The aim of the paper is to sum up knowledge of colour infrared (CIR) aerial photography as a tool for vegetation data for mapping and monitoring in environmental and biodiversity surveys and change detection surveillance. It compiles thirty years of research of the main ecosystems in Swedish vegetation, where the overall goal was to develop methods for mapping and monitoring vegetation by use of CIR aerial photographs, assess the accuracy compared to field-based mapping and to implement them as a tool in nature conservation and environmental planning. The methods include development of a classification system, identification and analysis of indicators, development of interpretation techniques, and evaluation compared to the data collected in the field. The CIR observable criteria are colour, texture, pattern, size, form, and density, based on spectral reflectance, physiognomy, life forms, ecological conditions, moisture and nutrition, vegetation period and phenology, topography, site conditions, and management methods. The methods have been used to produce vegetation maps of mountains, boreal forests, and mires in northern and central Sweden, in national inventories of wetlands, ancient meadows and pastures, key biotopes in forests and for monitoring agricultural landscapes.

How to monitor semi-natural key habitats in relation to grazing preferences of cattle in mountain summer farming areas: An aerial photo and GPS method study

Summer farming was formerly an important part of Norwegian husbandry and mountain areas have been used for grazing for hundreds of years. A decline in summer farming practices, during the twentieth century, has caused a large-scale encroachment of trees and shrubs leading to extensive landscape changes and decreased biodiversity. Therefore, in order to maintain the biodiversity in summer farm mountain areas, it is now necessary to detect, map and monitor remaining species-rich fragments, i.e. key habitats. It is also important to identify still grass- and herb-rich areas that can be successfully restored for grazing because of a new interest for summer farming. Field surveys in the re-growing mountain areas are extremely time consuming, as the concomitant terrain renders movement by foot arduous. A method was thus developed for detection of key-habitats and other grass and herb-rich habitats in such areas based on interpretation of coloured infrared aerial photographs (CIR). In addition, black-and-white aerial photographs, taken nearly 40 years ago, were used to identify past open land and pastures and thus in combination with the modern ones allow the identification of areas that exhibit a continuity in grazing. Interpretation keys were developed and vegetation maps were constructed. The interpretation from the aerial photographs was compared to detailed field control and the method was found to be efficient and accurate. The method gave useful information about the landscape history and continuity of grazing. The cattle’s movements were traced by GPS equipment mounted on a collar on the leading cattle, and their movements were later transferred to a map and analysed together with the vegetation map in a GIS. The results show that the cattle preferred to graze in the areas identified as most valuable and species rich. The developed method also makes it possible to identify areas for which pasture-restoration might be successfully achieved. Furthermore, the study revealed that there is a high correspondence between key habitats in the summer farming areas and grazing preferences of the cattle.

Biological values of the Nordic cultural landscape: Different perspectives

Abstract Intensified land use practices in the Nordic countries are increasing the need for more determined strategies in both natural and cultural conservation. The development of such management strategies requires an inter‐disciplinary approach to overcome the existing boundaries between research disciplines. The paper focuses on certain biological elements which should be taken into account in landscape management. These elements are discussed in different perspectives: temporal, spatial Nordic and European, and the close relationship between biological and historical landscape values is emphasised. Examples of changing evaluations over time and among different groups of people are given. In conclusion the paper stresses the need for a holistic approach to preserve the natural and cultural heritage and secure a long‐term utilisation of the landscape.

Wanted : Scientists in the CBD Process

An international, high-profile scientificconference that is central to thereaders of Conservation Biology andthat may be of utmost importancefor the future of biodiversity was recentlyheld in Rome. At the 13thmeeting of the scientific board of theConvention on Biological Diversity,over 700 participants gathered fromall over the world for 5 days. Nevertheless,one group was conspicuouslymissing at this conference:scientists.The Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD; www.cbd.int) is currentlythe most important internationalpolitical instrument that dealswith the increasing threat of biodiversityloss. Almost every countryin the world is party to the convention,and the work of implementationshapes the political processwith respect to biological resourcesworldwide. We write to express ourdeep concern over the fact that scientificparticipation in the work of theCBD is extremely limited and is beingweakened. The scientific boardof the convention—the SubsidiaryBody on Scientific, Technical andTechnological Advice (SBSTTA)—isincreasingly being politicized, effectivelyhalting scientific discussionand progress, strongly limiting thequality of recommendations that willbe taken to the decision-making biannualConference of the Parties (COP).We stress the urgent need to improvethe scientific input and influence inthe CBD process.Together with the United NationsFramework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC), the Conventionon Biological Diversity representskey agreements adopted at the 2ndEarth Summit in 1992. The Conventionon Climate Change has been exceedinglysuccessful in raising the importantissue of global warming tothe general public and political leaders.Underlining this significant impactwas the awarding of the 2007Nobel Peace Prize to the IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change(IPCC) and Al Gore. In contrast, theUNFCCC’s sister convention on biologicaldiversity leads a much lessrecognized and scientifically poorexistence.The objectives of the CBD are conservationof biological diversity, sustainableuse of its components, andfair and equitable sharing of benefitsarising from the use of geneticresources. In the 42 articles of theconvention, and especially in its associatedwork programs, relatively detailedrequests are made of individualparties to ensure progress towardthese objectives. They include developingnational strategies and programsfor assessing and monitoringall levels of biological diversity, andhalting activities that erode such diversity.Currently, 190 nations areparties to the CBD. Andorra, Somalia,Iraq, the Holy See, and the UnitedStates are not parties to CBD.The clear messages and detailedrecommendations of the CBD, togetherwith the worldwide supportand active process of meetings,developed strategies, and workinggroups provide the CBD with the potentialto truly make a difference withrespect to the ongoing sixth megaextinctionevent. Yet, effective actionon the basis of our best possiblescientific knowledge is increasinglyhindered by political quarrelsand turns of phrases.This is not to say that progress hasnot been made within the frameworkof the CBD during its 16 years of existence.For instance, adopted agreementsinclude a protocol that seeksto protect biological diversity fromthe potential risks posed by livingmodified organisms resulting frommodern biotechnology (The CartagenaProtocol on Biosafety), a cleargoal of halting all further loss ofbiodiversity by 2010 (the so-called2010 target), guiding principles forhow to deal with alien species (thespread of which constitutes one ofthemajor agents of biodiversity loss),and practical measures for assuringmaintenance and developmentof taxonomic competence for assessmentof species diversity (GlobalTaxonomic Initiative). Furthermore,thematic programs of work focus attentionon particular issues, for example,on forest and agricultural biodiversity.Nevertheless, the scientific bodyof the convention, the SBSTTA, is increasinglydominated by politiciansand professional negotiators. We, theundersigned of this letter, constitutedthe Swedish delegation at the13th meeting of the SBSTTA (18–22 February 2008). We are active researchersand conservation managersand as such felt very much alone atthis SBSTTA. We had come to discussand provide recommendationson how to identify conservation priorityareas in deep sea waters, manageforest biodiversity in relation toclimate change, minimize and monitorspread of alien species andpopulations, and manage agriculturalbiodiversity with an ecosystemapproach. Instead, we foundourselves devoting hours of discussionson whether to “welcome” or“bear in mind” a report from a particularworking group, or whetherreptiles, amphibians, fishes, and associatedspecies kept ex situ by privatepersons or institutions shouldbe called “aquarium species,” “terrariumspecies,” or both, and whetherthe Conference of the Parties shouldeven be informed about the potentialrisks for biodiversity associated withthe introduction of genetically modifiedtrees. One of the delegates revealedhis biological ignorance whenstating his country’s position on alienspecies with respect to “inter- andintraspecific biodiversity—whateverthe hell that means.”Of course, scientists are not theonly ones responsible for the failureto keep the SBSTTA a scientific forum.Some parties evidently want tosteer the process away from scienceto be able to make sure that decisionstaken within the CBD framework donot interfere with national issues oftrade and economic growth. Manyother parties have given in to thechanging nature of the discussionsand nowadays send a delegation predominantlyconsisting of nonscientists,although they maintain the viewthat SBSTTA ought to be scientific.Clearly, the process of increasingscientific input in convention workmust to be two-fold—political willand scientific interest are needed. Butpoliticians typically do not act withoutpressure, and there is a strongneed for increased pressure on politiciansto halt the ongoing erosion ofscientific quality of the SBSTTA.The fact that political and economicalinterests are currently strongwithin the CBD process should, however,not deter the scientific communityfrom getting involved in theprocess. Rather, this should motivateus even more to take a strongposition. If the current ineffectivetrend for the CBD work is to bereversed, we as scientists need toreclaim our position as providers ofguidelines, knowledge, and perspectivesfor the decision-making parties.As David Johns concludes in his editorialin 2007, “The knowledge—andthe proposals from that knowledge—will be naught if we lack politicaleffectiveness.” The CBD processis the largest global forum forprotecting biodiversity and a placewhere conservation scientists shouldstrive to become politically effective.Here, if anywhere, we need “thedefenders of nature to please rise”(Naess 1986).The Swedish government has appointeda Scientific Council on BiologicalDiversitywith the primary aimof providing advice with respect tothe CBD and its implementation. Thiscouncil was established soon afterSweden became a party to the conventionin 1993, and its members areselected to represent a broad field ofbiological diversity research with insightin practical management. Membersof the council attend SBSTTAand other expert meetings dependingon their particular expertise in relationto the issues being discussed.This strategy is considered to workwell both from a political and scientificperspective and may well be appropriatefor other countries.We urge our colleagues in scienceto become familiar with the currentwork of the convention. Find outwho represents your country in thescientific body, provide your scientificinput on the issues dealt with tothose representatives, and stress theneed for a scientific advisory functionfor CBD implementation within yourcountry. Colleagues in the UnitedStates need to voice the importanceof their country becoming a partyto the CBD, thereby sharing the responsibilityto secure and maintainbiodiversity globally. The voices ofconservation biologists worldwideare badly needed—please get involvedin the CBD process now!