Margarida S. Miranda

The degradation products of UV filters in aqueous and chlorinated aqueous solutions

Ultraviolet (UV) filters are vital constituents of sunscreens and other personal care products since they absorb, reflect and/or scatter UV radiation, therefore protecting us from the suns deleterious UV radiation and its effects. However, they suffer degradation, mainly through exposure towards sunlight and from reactions with disinfectant products such as chlorine. On the basis of their increasing production and use, UV filters and their degradation products have already been detected in the aquatic environment, especially in bathing waters. This paper presents a comprehensive review on the work done so far as to identify and determine the by-products of UV filter photodegradation in aqueous solutions and those subsequent to disinfection-induced degradation in chlorinated aqueous solutions, namely swimming pools.

CdSe quantum dots capped PAMAM dendrimer nanocomposites for sensing nitroaromatic compounds

The detection of nitroaromatic compounds, best known as raw materials in explosives preparations, is important in many fields including environmental science, public security and forensics. CdSe quantum dots capped with PAMAM-G(4) dendrimer were synthetized in water and used for the detection of trace amounts of three nitroaromatic compounds: 4-methoxy-2-nitrophenol (MNP), 2-amine-5-chloro-1,3-dinitrobenzene (ACNB) and 3-methoxy-4-nitrobenzoic acid (MNB). To increase the apparent water solubility of these compounds α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) was used to promote the formation of inclusion complexes. The studied nitroaromatic compounds (plus α-CD) significantly quenched the fluorescence intensity of the nanocomposite with linear Stern-Volmer plots. The Stern-Volmer constants (standard deviation in parenthesis) were: MNB, K(SV)=65(5)×10(4) M(-1); ACNB, K(SV)=19(2)×10(4) M(-1); and, MNP, K(SV)=33(1)×10(2) M(-1). These constants suggest the formation of a ground state complex between the nitroaromatric compounds and the sensor which confers a relatively high analytical sensitivity. The detection sensibilities are about 0.01 mg L(-1) for MNB and ACNB and about 0.1 mg L(-1) for MNP. No interferences or small interferences are observed for trinitrotoluene [K(SV)=10(2)×10(2)×M(-1)], 2,4-dinitrotoluene [K(SV)=20(3)×10 M(-1)], 2,6-dinitrotoluene [K(SV)=11(4)×10 M(-1)] and nitrobenzene [K(SV)=2(1)×10(3)×M(-1)].

Photodegradation of avobenzone: Stabilization effect of antioxidants

Avobenzone is one of the most common UVA-filters in sunscreens, and is known to be photounstable. Some of the strategies used to stabilize this filter present some drawbacks like photosensitization reactions. Antioxidants are widely used as cosmetic ingredients that prevent photoageing and complement the photoprotection offered by the UV-filters preventing or reducing photogenerated reactive species. The purpose of this work was to study the effect of antioxidants in the photostabilization of avobenzone. The filter dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide or incorporated in a sunscreen formulation was irradiated with simulated solar radiation (750 W/m(2)). The tested antioxidants were vitamin C, vitamin E, and ubiquinone. The area under the curve of the absorption spectrum for UVA range and the sun protection factor (SPF) were calculated. Vitamin E (1:2), vitamin C (1:0.5) and ubiquinone (1:0.5) were the more effective concentrations increasing the photostability of avobenzone. In sunscreen formulations, the most effective photostabilizer was ubiquinone which also promoted an increase in SPF. This knowledge is important to improve effectiveness of sunscreen formulation. Antioxidants can be valuable ingredients for sunscreens with a triple activity of filter stabilization, SPF boosting and photoageing prevention.

Energetics of Coumarin and Chromone

Condensed phase standard (p degrees = 0.1 MPa) molar enthalpies of formation for coumarin and chromone were derived from the standard molar enthalpies of combustion, in oxygen, at T = 298.15 K, measured by static bomb combustion calorimetry. The standard molar enthalpies of sublimation, at T = 298.15 K, were measured by Calvet microcalorimetry. Combining these values, the following enthalpies of formation in the gas phase, at T = 298.15 K, were then derived: coumarin, -(163.4 +/- 3.3) kJ x mol(-1), and chromone, -(126.1 +/- 2.5) kJ x mol(-1). The temperatures of fusion, T(fusion), and fusion enthalpies, at T = T(fusion), were also reported. Additionally, theoretical calculations were done using different methods: DFT/B3LYP, MCCM (MC-UT/3 and MC-QCISD/3), and also the more accurate G3MP2 method. Good agreement between experimental and theoretical data was achieved. Some correlations between structure and energy were also made, and the aromaticity of the compounds was evaluated by the nucleus independent chemical shifts (NICS).

Experimental and computational thermochemistry of three nitrogen-containing heterocycles: 2-benzimidazolinone, 2-benzoxazolinone and 3-indazolinone

The standard molar enthalpies of combustion, sublimation, and formation of three nitrogen-containing heterocycles, namely, 2-benzimidazolinone, 2-benzoxazolinone and 3-indazolinone were determined calorimetrically. The standard (p° = 0.1 MPa) molar enthalpies of formation in the gas phase were derived from the standard molar enthalpies of combustion, in oxygen, at T = 298.15 K, measured by static bomb combustion calorimetry and from the standard molar enthalpies of sublimation at T = 298.15 K, measured by Calvet microcalorimetry. Møller–Plesset calculations at the MP2 level and density functional calculations with the B3LYP functional and extended basis sets were also performed to determine the energetically preferred tautomeric form of the molecules. The results were qualitatively independent of the calculational level, where in general the DFT calculations were in better agreement with experiment than those from MP2. The gas and solid phase enthalpic differences between imines and amides, wherein –CH=N- is contrasted with –CONH-, have been studied and roughly constant values have been found.

Thiolated DAB dendrimers and CdSe quantum dots nanocomposites for Cd(II) or Pb(II) sensing

Four different generation of thiol-DAB dendrimers were synthesized, S-DAB-G(x) (x=1, 2, 3 and 5), and coupled with CdSe quantum dots, to obtain fluorescent nanocomposites as metal ions sensing. Cd(II) and Pb(II) showed the higher enhancement and quenching effects respectively towards the fluorescence of S-DAB-G(5)-CdSe nanocomposite. The fluorescence enhancement provoked by Cd(II) can be linearized using a Henderson-Hasselbalch type equation and the quenching provoked by Pb(II) can be linearized by a Stern-Volmer equation. The sensor responds to Cd(II) ion in the 0.05-0.7μM concentration range and to Pb(II) ion in the 0.01-0.15mM concentration range with a LOD of 0.06mM. The sensor has selectivity limitations but its dendrimer configuration has analytical advantages.

Degradation of UV filters 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate and 4-tert-butyl-4′-methoxydibenzoylmethane in chlorinated water

Environmental context The increasing use of sun-creams containing UV-filtering chemicals has led to increased inputs of these compounds to the aquatic environment. Chlorinated waters can convert these chemicals into chlorinated products whose toxic effects are of primary concern. To better understand the environmental fate of sun-cream chemicals, we studied the stability of two UV-filtering compounds under varying conditions of pH, chlorine concentration, temperature, dissolved organic matter and solar irradiation. Abstract The stability of the UV filters 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (EHMC) and 4-tert-butyl-4′-methoxydibenzoylmethane (BDM) in chlorinated water was studied. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-UV-diode array detection (DAD) was used to follow the reaction kinetics of both UV filters and HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) was used to tentatively identify the major transformation by-products. Under the experimental conditions used in this work both UV filters reacted with chlorine following pseudo-first order kinetics: rate constant k=0.0095±0.0007min–1 and half-life t1/2=73±4min for EHMC and rate constant k=0.006±0.001min–1 and half-life t1/2=119±14min for BDM (mean±standard deviation). The chemical transformation of the UV filters in chlorinated water led to the formation of chlorinated by-products that were tentatively identified as mono- and dichloro-substituted compounds that resulted from substitution of the hydrogen atoms in the benzene rings by one or two chlorine atoms. Experimental Box–Behnken designs were used to assess the effect of experimental factors: pH, temperature, chlorine concentration, dissolved organic matter and artificial sunlight irradiation on the transformation of the UV filters.

Saccharin: a combined experimental and computational thermochemical investigation of a sweetener and sulfonamide

The standard molar enthalpies of combustion, sublimation, and formation in the crystalline and gaseous phase at a temperature of 298.15 K have been experimentally determined for saccharin and for benzenesulfonamide. These compounds were also studied theoretically using density functional theory, the B3LYP functional and extended basis sets.

Are isatin and isatoic anhydride antiaromatic and aromatic respectively? A combined experimental and theoretical investigation

This paper reports the results of our thermochemical/calorimetric determination of the enthalpies of combustion, phase change, and formation of isatin, isatoic anhydride, and N-methylisatin. The density functional calculations accompanied by vibrational and thermal corrections were also performed for these compounds and N-methylisatoic anhydride. Through a combination of theoretical calculations and associated isodesmic reactions, we have deduced that isatin has some antiaromatic character and isatoic anhydride enjoys some aromatic stabilization.

Standard Enthalpies of Formation of 2,6-Di-tert-butyl4-methylphenol and 3,5-Di-tert-butylphenol and Their Phenoxy Radicals

The standard (po = 0.1 MPa) enthalpies of formation of 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol and 3,5-di-tert-butylphenol in the gaseous phase, −315.5 ± 4.4 kJ mol−1 and −312.7 ± 4.6 kJ mol−1, respectively, were derived from the standard enthalpies of combustion, in oxygen, at 298.15 K, measured by static bomb combustion calorimetry, and from the standard enthalpies of sublimation, at 298.15 K, measured by Calvet microcalorimetry. The O—H bond dissociation enthalpies in those compounds were determined in benzene by photoacoustic calorimetry, leading to the standard enthalpies of formation of the gaseous phenoxy radicals: −189 ± 8 kJ mol−1 and −154 ± 6 kJ mol−1, respectively. These results were used to calculate enthalpies of substituent redistribution reactions, which are proposed as a method to estimate new data for substituted phenols.