Margie E. Lachman

The sense of control as a moderator of social class differences in health and well-being.

The authors examined social class differences in 2 aspects of the sense of control (mastery and perceived constraints) in 3 national probability samples of men and women ages 25-75 years (N1 = 1,014; N2 = 1,195; N3 = 3,485). Participants with lower income had lower perceived mastery and higher perceived constraints, as well as poorer health. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that for all income groups, higher perceived mastery and lower perceived constraints were related to better health, greater life satisfaction, and lower depressive symptoms. However, control beliefs played a moderating role; participants in the lowest income group with a high sense of control showed levels of health and well-being comparable with the higher income groups. The results provided some evidence that psychosocial variables such as sense of control may be useful in understanding social class differences in health.

Social Support and Strain from Partner, Family, and Friends: Costs and Benefits for Men and Women in Adulthood

The goals of this study were to (i) examine the association of social support and strain with psychological well-being and health, (ii) investigate whether these associations depended on relationship-type (partner, family, friend), (iii) examine the buffering effects of support on strain (both within and across relationship-type), and (iv) test the extent to which these associations differed by age and sex. The sample contained 2,348 adults (55% male) aged 25 to 75 years (M = 46.3), who were married or cohabitating. Positive and negative social exchanges were more strongly related to psychological well-being than to health. For both sexes, partner support and strain and family support were predictive of well-being measures; partner strain was also predictive of health problems. However, family strain was predictive of well-being and health outcomes more often for women. Further, while we did find evidence that supportive networks could buffer the detrimental effects of strained interactions, friends and family served a buffering role more often for women than for men.

Locus of control in aging research: a case for multidimensional and domain-specific assessment.

Do locus of control beliefs change in later life? Is locus of control related to aging-relevant outcomes involving intelligence and health? In past research on these topics, the use of unidimensional and generalized measures of locus of control has led to a set of inconsistent findings. Three studies were conducted to examine the usefulness of multidimensional and domain-specific measures of locus of control for examining age differences and correlates. College students and elderly adults were compared on Levensons multidimensional and generalized (internal, chance, and powerful others) locus of control scales and two domain-specific versions related to intelligence and health. As predicted, no age differences were found with generalized measures, but the elderly were more external on intelligence- and health-specific locus of control dimensions. Age differences were found most often on the chance and powerful others control dimensions, suggesting that the elderly acknowledge the importance of external sources of control and at the same time preserve their sense of internal control. In addition, the domain-specific scales were better predictors of behavioral outcomes within their respective domains for the elderly but not for the young. The findings suggest that multidimensional and domain-specific conceptions of control are advantageous for aging research.

You're only as old as you feel: Self-perceptions of age, fears of aging, and life satisfaction from adolescence to old age.

We examined differences in subjective age identification from adolescence to old age and the relation between subjective age and fears about ones own aging and life satisfaction. Using a questionnaire format, 188 men and women from 14 to 83 years of age made judgments about how old they felt, looked, acted, and desired to be. Respondents also answered questions about their personal fears of aging and present life satisfaction. Results revealed that individuals in their teens held older subjective age identities, whereas during the early adult years, individuals maintained same age identities. Across the middle and later adult years, individuals reported younger age identities, and women experienced younger age identities than men across these adults years. Results also revealed that discrepancies between subjective and actual age were associated with personal fears of aging and life satisfaction, especially in younger men and women.

Planning for the Future: A Life Management Strategy for Increasing Control and Life Satisfaction in Adulthood

The study examined the social, personality, and cognitive correlates of self-reported future planning and the relationship of future planning to perceived control and life satisfaction. Using 2 probability samples of adults ages 25-74 (n = 2,971, n2 = 300) findings suggest, for Study 1, that education, income, social support, predictability, Conscientiousness. and Openness to Experience were positively related to future planning, whereas Neuroticism and Agreeableness were negatively related. Men were more future oriented; as age increased, future planning decreased. Study 2 replicated the findings with the exception of age, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. For both studies, results supported a model in which the effects of future planning on life satisfaction were mediated by sense of control. A Planning x Age interaction for Study I indicated that although self-reported future planning decreased with age, the positive effects of future-oriented planning strategies on life satisfaction were most pronounced for the older adults, and this relationship was also mediated by control beliefs.

Perceived Control Over Aging-Related Declines Adaptive Beliefs and Behaviors

The belief that people are in control of desired outcomes, including those associated with aging, is a hallmark of American culture. Nevertheless, older adults are less likely than the young to believe there are things that can be done to control aging-related declines in areas such as memory. Within age groups, individual differences in control beliefs are related to cognitive performance, health, and well-being. Mechanisms linking perceived control and positive outcomes include adaptive behaviors such as strategy use and physical activity. There is some evidence that control beliefs can be modified in later life, as illustrated in an intervention for fear of falling. Further work is needed to examine the antecedents of perceived control in later life and the implications of control beliefs in other aging-related domains.

Sociodemographic variations in the sense of control by domain : Findings from the macarthur studies of midlife

Past research has focused on general control beliefs with little attention to whether control beliefs vary across domains. Also, most age-comparative studies have examined control beliefs in younger and older adults but not in middle-aged adults. This study examined assessments of control in 7 domains for a large probability sample of adults 25-75 years in age. Results revealed differential age patterns across domains: Increases in control by age were found for control over work, finances, and marriage, whereas decreases were found for control over relationship with children and sex life. Control beliefs in some domains also varied by gender and education, but the age patterns were consistent across these sociodemographic groups. Domain-specific control beliefs were significantly related to a variety of domain-relevant experiences and outcomes.

A home-based exercise program for nondisabled older adults

OBJECTIVES: This paper describes a videotaped, home‐based, strength training program, titled Strong‐for‐Life and reports on its effectiveness in improving muscle strength, psychological well‐being, and health status in a sample of older persons.

Consequences of early parental loss and separation for health and well-being in midlife

We examined the impact of parental death and divorce prior to age 17 on physical and mental wellbeing in a national probability sample of middle-aged adults. The results suggest that, for men, parental divorce was associated with less positive relations with others, less self-acceptance, lower environmental mastery, and greater depression. Parental divorce predicted higher levels of physical health problems for both men and women. This relationship was mediated by income, education, drug use, and family support and was greater for men than women. Parental death predicted more autonomy for men and a higher likelihood of depression for women. The results contribute to understanding the developmental pathways involved in linking early life experiences to adulthood outcomes.

Perceived Control and Intellectual Functioning in the Elderly: A 5-Year Longitudinal Study.

We examined whether control beliefs are related to individual differences in intellectual aging by administering a battery of intellectual tests and perceived control scales to 63 elderly adults in 1981 and in 1986