Marguerite E. O’Haire

Rat tickling: A systematic review of applications, outcomes, and moderators

Introduction Rats initially fear humans which can increase stress and impact study results. Additionally, studying positive affective states in rats has proved challenging. Rat tickling is a promising habituation technique that can also be used to model and measure positive affect. However, current studies use a variety of methods to achieve differential results. Our objective was to systematically identify, summarize, and evaluate the research on tickling in rats to provide direction for future investigation. Our specific aims were to summarize current methods used in tickling experiments, outcomes from tickling, and moderating factors. Methods We systematically evaluated all articles about tickling identified from PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and PsychInfo. Our inclusion criteria were publication in a peer-reviewed journal and collection of original, empirical data on rats using the handling method of tickling. One researcher extracted information from each article. Bias was assessed by 2 investigators using the SYRCLE bias assessment tool. Results We identified 32 articles (56 experiments) published in peer-reviewed journals about rat tickling for inclusion. A wide variety of strains, sexes, and ages of rats were included. The most common method used for tickling was cycling through 15 seconds of tickling and 15 seconds of rest for 2 minutes for 3 to 5 days. Experiments with a control for tickling (N = 22) showed that tickling increases positive vocalization, approach behavior, decreases anxiety measures, improves handling, and in some cases decreases stress hormones. Tickling juvenile, individually housed rats with a trait predisposition to respond more positively to tickling, results in the most positive outcomes. Methods to reduce bias were insufficiently reported. Conclusions We conclude that tickling is a promising method for improving rat welfare and investigating positive affect. However, the establishment of tickling best practices is essential as the outcomes from tickling can be moderated by several factors.

Research on animal-assisted intervention and autism spectrum disorder, 2012–2015

ABSTRACT Including animals in autism intervention is growing in both research and practice. A systematic literature review was conducted to collate and synthesize all empirical research on animal-assisted intervention (AAI) for autism published from 2012 to 2015. Findings from 28 included studies revealed that AAI programs generally include one animal per participant with a total contact time of approximately 10 hours over the course of 8 to 12 weeks. Research methodology is diverse and though limited in many cases, has improved over the last few years. The most commonly reported outcome was increased social interaction, which was unanimously significant across 22 studies. The need for further research is highlighted, calling for a focus on refining AAI techniques, identifying optimal circumstances for positive change as well as individuals who may not benefit, and independent replication of high quality studies to move AAI from an enrichment activity to an evidence-based practice for autism.

The Roles of Animals for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Abstract Animals play many roles in the lives of persons with ASD. For some persons with ASD, animals can provide strong social supports both as companions and as service animals. For others, animals may provide a unique catalyst for therapeutic success. Clinicians must appreciate that persons with ASD process information differently than others. These processing differences often have an impact on the way these individuals relate to others, including animals. For those clinicians who serve a population of children and adults with ASD, they may consider learning more about resources in their community that could help provide opportunities for AAI outside of the traditional therapeutic environment (e.g., equine therapy, service animals). They should also consider some of the guidelines for incorporating animals in their therapeutic regime as discussed in this chapter and throughout this volume.

Understanding the Role of Human–Animal Interaction in the Family Context

Abstract The goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of why it is important to understand companion animal relationships in the family setting generally, and how exploring these relationships intentionally can be productively incorporated into clinical practice and animal-assisted intervention more specifically. For youth in particular, interacting with animals can be associated with both positive and negative experiences, and awareness about the ways in which these relationships can be a lens for understanding a childs well-being can be a useful tool for both clinicians and researchers. Therefore, this chapter will discuss how human–animal relationships can be related to both adaptive and nonadaptive outcomes and functioning in the family system, and implications for clinical practice.

Measuring the Effects of an Animal-Assisted Intervention for Pediatric Oncology Patients and Their Parents: A Multisite Randomized Controlled Trial :

Objective: This multicenter, parallel-group, randomized trial examined the effects of an animal-assisted intervention on the stress, anxiety, and health-related quality of life for children diagnosed with cancer and their parents. Method: Newly diagnosed patients, aged 3 to 17 years (n = 106), were randomized to receive either standard care plus regular visits from a therapy dog (intervention group), or standard care only (control group). Data were collected at set points over 4 months of the child’s treatment. Measures included the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory™, Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory, Pediatric Inventory for Parents, and child blood pressure and heart rate. All instruments were completed by the child and/or his/her parent(s). Results: Children in both groups experienced a significant reduction in state anxiety (P < .001). Parents in the intervention group showed significantly decreased parenting stress (P = .008), with no changes in stress among parents in the control group. However, no significant differences between groups over time on any measures were observed. Conclusions: Animal-assisted interventions may provide certain benefits for parents and families during the initial stages of pediatric cancer treatment.

Assessing Preferences for Animals in Children with Autism: A New Use for Video-Based Preference Assessment

The inclusion of animals into interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a growing practice known as animal-assisted intervention (AAI). The choice of the animal to include in an intervention is often solely up to the interventionist and depends on their experience, subjective judgment, and ease of access to different animals. For individuals with ASD who are non-verbal and unable to indicate preferred stimuli or activities, incorporating preference into interventions has been linked to increases in positive behaviors and enhanced quality of life. We propose that animal choice based on a participant’s preference may enhance the experience of AAI and maximize its outcomes. A common technique used to reliably determine preferred interactions and activities in interventions for children with ASD is a stimulus preference assessment. The video-based multiple-stimulus without replacement (MSWO) procedure, in particular, allows for discrimination of complex stimuli that could not feasibly be presented all at once, which is the case when choosing an animal. Based on the well-documented reliability of this technique in the field of applied behavior analysis, we propose that a future direction in AAI is utilizing video-based MSWO to guide animal selection.

The effect of a service dog on salivary cortisol awakening response in a military population with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Recent studies suggest a therapeutic effect of psychiatric service dogs for military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but are limited by self-report biases. The current study assessed the effect of PTSD service dogs on the salivary cortisol awakening response (CAR) and arousal-related functioning in a population of military veterans with PTSD. Participants included 73 post-9/11 military veterans with PTSD including 45 with a service dog and 28 on the waitlist to receive one. Saliva samples were collected on two consecutive weekday mornings at awakening and 30 min later to quantify the cortisol awakening response (CAR) and its area under the curve (AUCi) in addition to standardized survey measures of anxiety, anger, sleep quality and disturbance, and alcohol abuse. There was a significant main effect of having a service dog on both the CAR and the AUCi, with individuals with a service dog exhibiting a higher CAR and AUCi compared to those on the waitlist. Results also revealed that those with a service dog reported significantly lower anxiety, anger, and sleep disturbance as well as less alcohol abuse compared to those on the waitlist, with medium to large effect sizes. Although those with a service dog reported significantly less PTSD symptom severity, CAR was not significantly associated with PTSD symptoms within or across group. In conclusion, results indicate that the placement of a PTSD service dog may have a significant positive influence on both physiological and psychosocial indicators of wellbeing in military veterans with PTSD. Although clinical significance cannot be confirmed, a higher CAR/AUCi among those with a service dog may indicate better health and wellbeing in this population. Future within-subject, longitudinal research will be necessary to determine potential clinical significance and impact of individual differences.

Rat Tickling in Pet Stores: Effects on Employees, Customers, and New Owners

ABSTRACT Rat tickling is a technique used by humans with rats to mimic rough-and-tumble play, improve welfare, and reduce fear. Anecdotal information suggests that rat tickling is also beneficial for humans, yet this assertion has not been empirically validated. We hypothesized that rat tickling would be beneficial to multiple populations interacting with or viewing rats at pet stores, including employees, customers, and new rat owners. We sampled nine employees, 806 customers, and 35 rat owners in two pet stores across three replicates. Employees were assessed after caring for rats (using tickling or minimal handling methods) and after the sale of each rat with the Animal Empathy Scale and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale. Customers were asked via a survey to determine which cage of rats they would purchase and which cage of rats looked the happiest. New rat owners’ reasons for purchase, satisfaction, and attachment were assessed with surveys, including the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale. Data were analyzed using general linear models (employees and owners) and generalized linear mixed models (customers). Employee affect was unaltered by handling treatment in the first four days. At the point of sale, employee positive affect was higher when selling controls versus tickled rats, pets versus feeders, and rats that had been in the store for a shorter time. Customers were more likely to identify tickled high-calling and control rats as being happier. Customers were more likely to choose rats from cages with a higher proportion of colored rats for purchasing. Owners and customers frequently cited behavioral reasons as important for selection of rats. In conclusion, based on the measures used in our study, short-term tickling of pet store rats may have minimal effects on humans. However, future research is warranted to investigate effects of more frequent or longer-term tickling.