Maria Czyzewska

Nonconscious Acquisition of Information

The authors review and summarize evidence for the process of acquisition of information outside of conscious awareness (covariations, nonconscious indirect and interactive inferences, self-perpetuation of procedural knowledge). Data indicate that as compared with consciously controlled cognition, the nonconscious information-acquisition processes are not only much faster but are also structurally more sophisticated, in that they are capable of efficient processing of multidimensional and interactive relations between variables. Those mechanisms of nonconscious acquisition of information provide a major channel for the development of procedural knowledge that is indispensable for such important aspects of cognitive functioning as encoding and interpretation of stimuli and the triggering of emotional reactions.

Implicit and explicit attitudes to high- and low-calorie food in females with different BMI status

The study compared implicit and explicit attitudes to three types of foods (high-calorie non-sweet HCNS, high-calorie sweet HCS and low-calorie LC) among females varying in BMI status. Eight three participants completed an affective priming task (implicit attitudes), followed by explicit rating of food images. The results of ANOVA showed a significant difference in implicit attitudes to different types of food, F(3,246)=3.90, p<.01 and the difference among BMI groups (F(6, 213)=2.15, p<.05). The implicit attitudes to HCS were positive in the healthy-weight and overweight groups but negative in obese; the reversed pattern was revealed in attitudes to HCNS. All groups showed negative implicit attitudes to LC foods. The ANOVA performed on explicit ratings revealed a significant effect of food type (F(3,213)=22.54, p<001) but no interaction between food type and BMI status. All participants rated HCNS significantly lower than HCS and LC foods. Our results indicate dissociation in implicit and explicit attitudes to foods among BMI groups, especially in attitudes to HCNS and HCS foods.

Body Image in Hispanic/Latino vs. European American Adolescents: Implications for Treatment and Prevention of Obesity in Underserved Populations

Hispanic/Latino (H/L) vs. European American (EA) perceptions of current and ideal body image as well as body dissatisfaction were examined in 416 adolescents aged 12–15 years. Gender, culture, and body mass index (BMI) were hypothesized to affect measures of self-perceived body image and dissatisfaction differentially. Participants completed a computerized survey with gender-specific versions of applicable test items. Overall, body dissatisfaction (BD) was higher among EAs vs. H/Ls, females vs. males, and unhealthy BMI vs. healthy BMI (p<.01). A gender × ethnicity interaction trend was also noted (p>.06), in which BD was highest among EA females, followed by H/L females, EA males, and H/L males. Results suggest that gender and cultural differences in body image among adolescents are significant. This study is an important step toward clarifying the nature of weight-related health risks facing the understudied population of Hispanic/Latino teens.

Nonconscious indirect inferences in encoding.

Indirect (transitive) inference (i.e., if A is related to B, and B is related to C, then C is related to A) is a ubiquitous component of thinking and reasoning. This research demonstrates that a mechanism at least functionally similar to drawing indirect inferences can also be observed in unintentional processes of encoding. The 2 studies followed the same design and used modified versions of procedures tested in previous research on nonconscious information processing (P. Lewicki, T. Hill, & M. Czyzewska, 1992). In the first learning phase, Ss acquired an encoding algorithm relating Variables A and B. In the second learning phase, Variable A was removed from the material and replaced with Variable C, allowing Ss to acquire the second encoding algorithm (relating B and C). Consistent with the original studies, Ss were not aware that there were any consistencies in the material. In the testing phase material, Variable B was removed, and Ss were asked to make intuitive judgments regarding Variable A. The data from both experiments confirmed the expectation that Ss would implicitly draw indirect inferences (A on the basis of C). This process is discussed as one of the mechanisms that may trigger the development of various components of procedural knowledge.

College drinking among Latinos(as) in the United States and Mexico

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Existing studies of Latino(a) college students in the United States suggest that self-reported alcohol consumption tends to be higher among males, and that drinking among Latinas is often influenced by social and contextual factors. The current study extended this work by examining both self-reported drinking levels and predictors of drinking among Latino(a) college students in the United States and Mexico (MX). METHODS Latino(a) college students (N = 376) from three universities in the South Central United States and Northern Mexico completed pencil-and-paper surveys about alcohol. RESULTS US Latino students (vs. MX males), reported drinking more frequently and had more positive expectancies about alcohol. Latinas in the United States (vs. MX females) were more likely to report regular drinking. Across countries, both female gender and the Mexican orientation component of acculturation predicted lower reported alcohol consumption. Positive expectancies about drinking predicted increased drinking. CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE Self-reported college drinking and expectancies about alcohol may differ subtly among individuals in the United States and Mexico based on gender and endorsement of traditional Mexican values. These findings could ultimately be applied to the development of more tailored programs for the treatment and prevention of alcohol abuse on college campuses.

Explicit and Implicit Attitudes to Food

Attitudes exert a powerful influence on human decision-making and behavior; they are thought to be a driving force behind prejudice and are important factors in many consumer and health-related choices. Essentially, attitudes can be assessed in two ways: directly (explicit attitudes) or indirectly (implicit attitudes). Relative to explicit attitudes, which are subject to top-down control, implicit attitudes are thought to represent more of automatic an processing. In this review, this implicit/explicit distinction is explored in the context of food and eating behaviors, with particular emphasis on the various methodologies used to tap into implicit attitudes. The roles of implicit and explicit attitudes about food are discussed in the context of theoretical models emphasizing impulsive and reflective tendencies. Studies examining individual differences in and situational moderators of attitudes and their effects on impulsive and reflective processing are also examined. Explicit attitudes are most influential when a person has enough resources and motivation to exert self-control through reflective processing, whereas implicit attitudes will tend to predominate in states of low motivation or when resources are reduced via the impulsive system. Because of their ultimate effects on health-related choices, an understanding of implicit and explicit attitudes has important implications for obesity prevention and management, disordered and emotional eating, and addictive behaviors.