Maria Hahlin

Electronic and molecular structures of organic dye/TiO2 interfaces for solar cell applications: a core level photoelectron spectroscopy study

The electronic and molecular properties of three organic dye molecules with the general structure donor-linker-anchor have been investigated using core level photoelectron spectroscopy (PES). The molecules contain a diphenylaniline donor unit, a thiophene linker unit, and cyanoacrylic acid or rhodanine-3-acetic acid anchor units. They have been investigated both in the form of a multilayer and adsorbed onto nanoporous TiO(2) and the experimental results were also compared with DFT calculations. The changes at the dye-sensitized TiO(2) surface due to the modification of either the donor unit or the anchor unit was investigated and the results showed important differences in coverage as well as in electronic and molecular surface properties. By measuring the core level binding energies, the sub-molecular properties were characterized and the result showed that the adsorption to the TiO(2) influences the energy levels of the sub-molecular units differently.

Interface layer formation in solid polymer electrolyte lithium batteries: an XPS study

The first characterization studies of the interface layer formed between a Li-ion battery electrode and a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) are presented here. SPEs are well known for their electrochemical stability and excellent safety, and thus considered good alternatives to conventional liquid/gel electrolytes in high-energy density battery devices. This work comprises studies of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation in SPE-based graphite|Li cells using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). SPEs based on high molecular weight poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) and lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) salt are studied. Large amounts of LiOH are observed, and the XPS results indicate a correlation with moisture contamination in the SPEs. The water contents are quantitatively determined to be in the range of hundreds of ppm in the pure PEO as well as in the polymer electrolytes, which are prepared by a conventional SPE preparation method using different batches of PEO and at different drying temperatures. Moreover, severe salt degradation is observed at the graphite–SPE interface after the 1st discharge, while the salt is found to be more stable at the Li–SPE interface or when using LiTFSI-based liquid electrolyte equivalents.

Surface Characterization of the Carbon Cathode and the Lithium Anode of Li-O2 Batteries using LiClO4 or LiBOB salts

The surface compositions of a MnO₂ catalyst containing carbon cathode and a Li anode in a Li-O₂ battery were investigated using synchrotron-based photoelectron spectroscopy (PES). Electrolytes comprising LiClO₄ or LiBOB salts in PC or EC:DEC (1:1) solvents were used for this study. Decomposition products from LiClO₄ or LiBOB were observed on the cathode surface when using PC. However, no degradation of LiClO₄ was detected when using EC/DEC. We have demonstrated that both PC and EC/DEC solvents decompose during the cell cycling to form carbonate and ether containing compounds on the surface of the carbon cathode. However, EC/DEC decomposed to a lesser degree compared to PC. PES revealed that a surface layer with a thickness of at least 1-2 nm remained on the MnO₂ catalyst at the end of the charged state. It was shown that the detachment of Kynar binder influences the surface composition of both the carbon cathode and the Li anode of Li-O₂ cells. The PES results indicated that in the charged state the SEI on the Li anode is composed of PEO, carboxylates, carbonates, and LiClO₄ salt.

The impact of size effects on the electrochemical behaviour of Cu2O-coated Cu nanopillars for advanced Li-ion microbatteries

The generation of a distribution of nanoparticles upon conversion reaction of thin Cu2O layers is demonstrated to produce a wide electrochemical potential window, as well as a distinctive capacity increase in large area three-dimensional electrodes. Cu nanopillars with a 10–15 nm Cu2O coating containing traces of nanocrystalline Fe2O3 yield capacities up to 0.265 mA h cm−2 (at 61 mA g−1), excellent cycling for more than 300 cycles and an electroactive potential window larger than 2 V, due to the size effects caused by the various Cu/Cu2O nanoparticles formed during conversion/deconversion. These 3D Li-ion battery electrodes based on electrodeposited Cu nanopillars spontaneously coated with a Cu2O layer are compatible with current densities of 16 A g−1 (i.e. 61 C rates) after aerosol-assisted infiltration with an iron acetate solution followed by low-temperature pyrolysis. The capacity of the composite material increases by 67% during 390 cycles due to the growth of the electroactive area during the electrochemical milling of Cu2O forced by its repeated conversion/de-conversion. The latter generates a distribution of nanoparticles with different sizes and redox potentials, which explains the broad potential window, as well as the significant capacity contribution from double layer charging. These 3D electrodes should be well-suited for Li-ion microbatteries and Li-ion batteries in general, since they combine high capacities per footprint area with excellent power capabilities. More importantly, such electrodes grant access to fundamental understanding of the electrochemical behaviour of these active materials providing new insights into both conversion mechanisms and nanostructured interfaces more in general.

Electric Potential Gradient at the Buried Interface between Lithium-Ion Battery Electrodes and the SEI Observed Using Photoelectron Spectroscopy

The buried interface between the bulk electrode material and the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) in cycled Li-ion battery anodes is suggested to incorporate an electric potential gradient. This suggestion is based on photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) results from different anode materials that all show relative binding energy shifts between the components of the SEI and the active anode. Implications of this electric potential gradient on binding energy reference points in PES as well as on charge-transfer kinetics in Li-ion batteries are discussed. Specifically, we show that the separation of surface layer and bulk material spectral contributions (depth profiling) is crucial for consistent data interpretation. We conclude that previous interpretations of lithiation as cause for changes in PES spectra may need to be revised.

A versatile photoelectron spectrometer for pressures up to 30 mbar

High-pressure photoelectron spectroscopy is a rapidly developing technique with applications in a wide range of fields ranging from fundamental surface science and catalysis to energy materials, environmental science, and biology. At present the majority of the high-pressure photoelectron spectrometers are situated at synchrotron end stations, but recently a small number of laboratory-based setups have also emerged. In this paper we discuss the design and performance of a new laboratory based high pressure photoelectron spectrometer equipped with an Al Kα X-ray anode and a hemispherical electron energy analyzer combined with a differentially pumped electrostatic lens. The instrument is demonstrated to be capable of measuring core level spectra at pressures up to 30 mbar. Moreover, valence band spectra of a silver sample as well as a carbon-coated surface (graphene) recorded under a 2 mbar nitrogen atmosphere are presented, demonstrating the versatility of this laboratory-based spectrometer.

Corrosion of copper in water free from molecular oxygen

Abstract The possibility of copper reacting with O2-free water has been investigated by analysis of primary corrosion products, as well as by monitoring gas pressure change by time, in long term experiments for up to 6 months in a glove box environment. We establish hydrogen production, but being of the same magnitude irrespective whether copper is present or not. Although low, the hydrogen production rate is considerably larger than what would directly correspond to the amount of analysed copper oxidation products. Our analyses encompass the changes to the surface cleaned copper (99·9999%), the water phase and the Duran glass in contact with the water (ppt quality). We have used very sensitive methods (XPS, AES, ICP-MS, XRF) while keeping contamination risks to a minimum. We conclude that the oxidation rate of copper is very low, yielding only parts of a monolayer of Cu2O after 6 months of exposure at 50°C together with an accompanying very low concentration of copper species (4–5 μg L−1) in the water phase.

A high pressure x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy experimental method for characterization of solid-liquid interfaces demonstrated with a Li-ion battery system

We report a methodology for a direct investigation of the solid/liquid interface using high pressure x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HPXPS). The technique was demonstrated with an electrochemical system represented by a Li-ion battery using a silicon electrode and a liquid electrolyte of LiClO4 in propylene carbonate (PC) cycled versus metallic lithium. For the first time the presence of a liquid electrolyte was realized using a transfer procedure where the sample was introduced into a 2 mbar N2 environment in the analysis chamber without an intermediate ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) step in the load lock. The procedure was characterized in detail concerning lateral drop gradients as well as stability of measurement conditions over time. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements demonstrate that the solid substrate and the liquid electrolyte can be observed simultaneously. The results show that the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) composition for the wet electrode is stable within the probing time and generally agrees well with traditional UHV studies. Since the methodology can easily be adjusted to various high pressure photoelectron spectroscopy systems, extending the approach towards operando solid/liquid interface studies using liquid electrolytes seems now feasible.

Mapping the frontier electronic structures of triphenylamine based organic dyes at TiO2 interfaces

The frontier electronic structures of a series of organic dye molecules containing a triphenylamine moiety, a thiophene moiety and a cyanoacrylic acid moiety have been investigated by photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) and resonant photoelectron spectroscopy (RPES). The experimental results were compared to electronic structure calculations on the molecules, which are used to confirm and enrich the assignment of the spectra. The approach allows us to experimentally measure and interpret the basic valence energy level structure in the dye, including the highest occupied energy level and how it depends on the interaction between the different units. Based on N 1s X-ray absorption and emission spectra we also obtain insight into the structure of the excited states, the molecular orbital composition and dynamics. Together the results provide an experimentally determined energy level map useful in the design of these types of materials. Included are also results indicating femtosecond charge redistribution at the dye/TiO(2) interface.