Maria Psychountaki

Development and Validation of the Self-Talk Questionnaire (S-TQ) for Sports

The purpose of the present study was to describe the development and validation of the Self-Talk Questionnaire (S-TQ), designed to measure two functions of self-talk strategies, namely the motivational function and the cognitive function, used by athletes to enhance their sport performances. The study was conducted in three phases. The first phase targeted item selection and content relevance. The second phase set out to test the factor structure of the instrument. The aim of the third phase was focused on further examination of the psychometric properties of the instrument. The results of an exploratory factor analysis provided adequate support for the instrument. The S-TQ consists of 11 items, representing two factors (motivational and cognitive). A confirmatory factor analysis showed an acceptable fit to the data. The factors were internally consistent, the correlations with external criteria were significant, and test-retest reliability values were very good. Examining the relationships between the S-TQ and similar constructs supported convergent validity. Discriminant validity was supported by correlations between the S-TQ and a different construct. The S-TQ appears to be a promising psychometric instrument that can be used in research and psychological intervention programs.

Reliability and Validity of the Greek Version of the STAIC

Summary: This study describes the adaptation of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC; Spielberger, Edwards, Lushene, Montuori, & Platzek, 1973) to the Greek population. It was hypothesized that the STAIC would be able to measure childrens state-trait anxiety levels. In the initial phase, a sample of 100 children, aged 9-12 years, was used in order to shape the final form of the inventory. In the final phase, two different samples (N = 875), aged 9-12 years, were used to test the validity and reliability of the inventory, using exploratory (Sample A; n = 425) and confirmatory (Sample B; n = 450) factor analyses. The results indicated that both scales possessed an acceptable internal consistency and reliability. The factor analysis in the total of the items indicated three factors, that is “absence of state anxiety,” “presence of state anxiety,” and “trait anxiety.” Also, confirmatory factor analysis (AMOS; Arbuckle, 1997) verified three factors. It is therefore concluded that the scales h...

Flow theory - goal orientation theory: positive experience is related to athlete's goal orientation.

The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between flow experience and goal orientation theory, as well as, the differences in flow experience based on the orthogonal model of goal orientation theory. Two hundred and seventy eight athletes completed the Task and Ego Orientation Sport Questionnaire based on how they usually feel. The challenge and skills ratings were completed 1 h before the competition, based on how they felt at the exact time of answering. In the following, the Flow State Scale-2 was completed up to 30 min after the competition they just participated, along with the challenge-skill ratings, based on how athletes felt during the competition. The results indicated that the athletes’ task orientation may be an important factor for attaining flow in competitive sport, feeling more skillful and estimating the upcoming competition as challenging, while low ego and low task oriented athletes lack these elements, which are important for them to get into flow. Additionally, not the level of task and ego orientation per se, but the balance between athletes’ goal orientation preferences seems important for the formation of flow experience, indicating that high task – high ego and high task – low ego athletes are experiencing the most positive mental state.

Retiring from elite sports in Greece and Spain.

The main objective of the present study was to compare the athletic retirement of elite Greek and Spanish athletes in terms of (a) pre-conditions of retirement, (b) transitional period, and (c) consequences of the transition. For this purpose, elite athletes from Greece (n = 76) and Spain (n = 57) described in retrospect their experience leaving competitive sports through the Retirement from Sports Survey (Alfermann, Stambulova, & Zemaityte, 2004). Separate one-way ANOVAs and chi-square tests revealed differences and similarities between the transitional processes of athletes from the two countries. More similarities than differences were detected in the retirement of Greek and Spanish athletes. Based on these commonalities, we proposed a Southern European perspective on the topic. According to the present results the main characteristics of this pattern could be the lack of retirement planning, high athletic identity after the sports career, and predominance of relocation in the sports world after retirement.

Development and validation of the Causes of Re-Injury Worry Questionnaire

Re-injury worry is an important construct in competitive sport that may influence performance and increase the risk of re-injury. However, there are currently no available instruments to measure the causes of re-injury worry. The purpose of this study was to develop the Causes of Re-Injury Worry Questionnaire (CR-IWQ). The study was conducted in three independent research phases to investigate the following: (a) the content relevance, (b) the factor structure and the factorial validity, (c) the concurrent validity, (d) the discriminant validity, and (e) the test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficients; ICC), and the internal consistency of the instrument. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was chosen to examine the factor structure of the CR-IWQ. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine further the factorial validity of the instrument. A number of valid constructs were used to assess the concurrent and discriminant validity of the CR-IWQ. The reliability of the new instrument was examined using Pearson r (ICC) and Cronbach α. Three hundred and seventy athletes with an acute musculoskeletal sport injury in the last year participated in the study. EFA revealed a 12-item model, representing two factors (“Re-injury worry due to rehabilitation” and “Re-injury worry due to opponents ability”). CFA supported the two-factor model of the CR-IWQ. The concurrent and discriminant validity of the CR-IWQ was confirmed by examining correlations between the CR-IWQ with other constructs. The ICCs and the Cronbach α indices of the CR-IWQ were acceptable. We have demonstrated that the CR-IWQ is a good psychometric instrument that can be used for clinical and research purposes.

Intensity and direction dimensions of competitive state anxiety: a time-to-event approach.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the temporally patterned changes in intensity and direction of competitive state anxiety prior to and during competition as well as correlations among intensity and direction on the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory–2D subscale scores. 99 athletes completed the inventory one day before and an hour before the competition, based on how they felt during that time, and 30 min. after the competition with reference to how they felt during the competition. Analysis indicated different temporal patterning in subscale scores prior to competition. Correlations were medium (.40) for Intensity and Direction dimensions. Significant differences were noted between scores of those classified as Facilitators and Debilitators on the Intensity dimension. The results support the multidimensional nature of competitive anxiety. Moreover, additional information lies in directional interpretation of competitive anxiety and self-confidence.

Psychological and situational determinants of burnout in adolescent athletes

Burnout in sport settings is commonly described as a multidimensional syndrome explained through a variety of antecedents. The present study aims to investigate the predictive relationship of psychological (motives, satisfaction, fatigue, anxiety, self-esteem) and situational (hours of training per week and perceived volume of training) determinants with athlete burnout symptoms (reduced sense of accomplishment, emotional/physical exhaustion, and sport devaluation). Participants were 142 Greek talented competitive athletes, aged 14–18 years, from various individual and team sports. Canonical correlation (CC) analysis indicated that the lack of satisfaction with performance, amotivation, and dysfunctional personality traits undermines athlete perceptions of accomplishment, while those less fatigued, less overloaded, and with a variety of motives protect themselves from feelings of emotional and physical exhaustion. Devaluation factor showed low reliability (.57) and thus was not included within CC analysis. Additionally, multivariate analysis of variance showed that “high burnout” athletes (n = 7) had elevated levels of amotivation, fatigue, and trait anxiety, but lower satisfaction with performance, less self-determined motivation, and lower self-esteem compared to “low burnout” athletes (n = 26). The present results highlight the need to take into consideration a combination of factors to understand burnout occurrence in adolescent athletes. Further, such athletes need to be supported in acquiring strategies to mitigate against threats to amotivation.

Motives for exercise participation: The role of individual and psychological characteristics

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of sex, body mass index (BMI), psychological characteristics (self-esteem, trait anxiety, social physique anxiety) on motives for exercise participation in the context of recreation and leisure. The sample consisted of 306 exercise participants. The results showed significant sex and BMI differences. More specifically, exercise motives were based on competition/ego for males, whereas females preferred psychological condition and appearance motives. Also, individuals low in BMI were motivated by physical appearance to participate in exercise programs. Psychological factors were also studied indicating that self-esteem was a significant predictor of competition/ego, affiliation, and physical condition motives, trait anxiety predicted motives of psychological condition, and to meet others’ expectations, whereas social physique anxiety predicted the appearance motive. Individuals with increased levels of the above psychological characteristics were not motivated to participate in exercise programs by intrinsic motives.

Cohesion and performance in soccer: A causal model

Abstract The conceptual model of sport cohesion that Carron developed describes the relationships between cohesion and performance including the antecedents and consequences of the variables. Although researchers have conducted a plethora of studies around the relationship between cohesion and performance, there is a gap in literature regarding longitudinal changes of this relationship as well as its direction. Therefore, the aim of the current study is to examine the relationship between cohesion and performance for soccer teams during a full competitive season as well as the direction of the relationship. The study suggests a new model for the relationship between cohesion and performance. In total, 173 Greek soccer players (M=21.91) completed the Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron et al., 1985) in all the measurements from the beginning of the preparation to the end of the competitive season. The results showed that cohesion and performance are two variables that affect each other in soccer, with a stronger direction from cohesion to performance. However, cohesion affects performance either positively or negatively throughout the season.

Psychometric Properties of The Greek Version of the Test of Performance Strategies-Competition Scale (TOPS-CS)

Psychometric Properties of The Greek Version of the Test of Performance Strategies-Competition Scale (TOPS-CS) The aim of the present study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Test of Performance Strategies-Competition scale (TOPS-CS; Thomas et al., 1999) in Greek athletic population. The TOPS-CS was designed to assess eight psychological strategies used by athletes in competition (activation, automaticity, emotional control, goal-setting, imagery, negative thinking, relaxation and self-talk). In order to evaluate the psychometric properties of the inventory, two different research studies were conducted in two different age groups (n1=382 athletes, aged 16 to 20 years and n2=343 athletes, aged 12 to 15 years). Furthermore, 263 athletes, (aged 16 to 20 years) completed the TOPS-CS, purposing to perform confirmatory factor analysis. The results of the first study supported the initial factorial structure of the TOPS-CS for athletes aged 16-20 years. Reliability analysis also provided adequate evidence for the internal consistency and stability of the scale for Greek athletes of this age. However, for athletes aged 12 to 15 years, the validity and reliability of the inventory were questionable and further research is required.