Maria Raquel Freire

Key players and regional dynamics in Eurasia : the return of the 'great game'

Introduction Russia in Eurasia: External Players and Regional Dynamics M.R.Freire & R.E.Kanet PART I: THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION AND THE GREATER CASPIAN BASIAN Russia and the CIS Region: The Russian Regional Security Complex B.Nygren International Rivalries in Eurasia S.Blank Eurasia at the Heart of Russian Politics: Dynamics of (In)Dependence in a Complex Setting M.R.Freire PART II: EXTERNAL POWERS, RUSSIA AND EURASIA Russia and the Greater Caspian Basin: Withstanding the U.S. Challenge R.E.Kanet Competing for Eurasia: Russian and European Union Perspectives S.Fernandes & L.Simao Russia and China in Eurasia: The Wary Partnership J.Berryman India and Central Asia A.D.Gupta Eurasia between Russia, Turkey and Iran M.Mesbahi PART III: INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AND NON-STATE ACTORS, RUSSIA AND EURASIA Senseless Dreams and Small Steps: The CIS and CSTO Between Integration and Cooperation R.Sakwa The Atlantic Alliance in Eurasia: A Different Player? A.Priego Intergovernmental Organisations and Non-State Actors, Russia and Eurasia: The OSCE P.T.Hopmann Strategic Resources, Strategic Players: The Role of National versus International Oil Companies in Post-Soviet Eurasia H.Kjaernet Conclusion M.R.Freire

The EU's security actorness: the case of EUMM in Georgia

This article addresses conceptually the European Union (EU)s security actorness, explaining its meaning, identifying the factors that are constitutive to the concept, and analyzing whether the EU is a security actor in Georgia, through its increased presence and engagement in the country and its eventual implications for the South Caucasus. The article argues that the complementary nature of the different EU tools deployed on the ground and their comprehensive nature have contributed to the EUs consolidation as a security actor in the South Caucasus. However, and despite the successful assessments of the European Union Monitoring Mission in the context of common security and defense policy development, the missions deployment and its contribution to regional stability are influenced to a great extent by the role and involvement of external players, in particular in this case, that of Russia.

The Armenian Road to Democracy - Dimensions of a Tortuous Process

Focusing on the internal and geo-political dimensions of Armenia’s road to democracy, this paper considers the decision-making structure, the role of leadership, the development of political parties and various changes in Armenian civil society. We aim to shed light on the role of the EU in the democratisation process by looking at the relationship between Brussels and Yerevan, at the instruments and strategies in operation, such as the European Neighbourhood Policy, and at the wider international context in which these changes are taking place.

The Modernisation Agenda in Russian Foreign Policy

Abstract This article looks at the concept of modernisation in Russian foreign policy and how modernisation issues have been included in Russian foreign policy discourse and practice. The article focuses on the importance attributed in Russian foreign policy to the modernisation agenda in relations with strategic partners, such as the USA and China, so as to position the European Union (EU)–Russia partnership in this broader framework. By looking at the strategic documents guiding these relations, the article addresses Russias relations with these external actors in view of the modernisation agenda, assessing whether the EU–Russia Partnership for Modernisation might constitute an effective mechanism for improving EU–Russia relations in a complex international context. Issues of geographical proximity and cultural affinity, which have traditionally underpinned EU–Russia relations, might be in the process of being overcome by more pragmatic notions, as the focus on modernisation (as opposed to democratisation) seems to suggest. The article argues that as a result of these shifts in context, the ability of the EU to remain relevant for Russian foreign policy in this regard might be limited.

Peacebuilding in Timor-Leste: Finding a Way between External Intervention and Local Dynamics

This article highlights the importance of interaction between peace missions and local dynamics, drawing on Tsings work on frictions. It is centred on the United Nations (UN) peace intervention in Timor-Leste, discussing different examples of frictions, which have the potential to undermine or empower the peacebuilding efforts underway. The analysis stresses the unpredictable effects of applying the UN liberal peace model. It is argued that processes of friction, often consisting of an incremental build-up of intermediate results shape and form the (un)sustainability of any peacebuilding process initiated by an external intervention and, consequently, should be identified and analysed in order to enhance or minimize their positive/negative contribution towards building peace.

Russian Reactions towards EU–Black Sea Integration

This paper looks at how Russian policies towards the Black Sea countries have affected its relations with the European Union (EU), departing from Russian foreign policy and how its goals are projected in this area. The analysis seeks to shed light on how Russian political dealings conflate or clash with EU policies developed towards this space. Is the Black Sea area a space for convergence or instead is it promoting dissension in this bilateral relationship? Does Russia understand the EU as a ‘game changer’ in the area? To what extent does the involvement of other external players, such as the USA, with their different policy goals, affect political relations in this complex geography that is the Black Sea area? The paper argues that Russia has promoted a policy towards the Black Sea in line with its main foreign policy goals, and that regarding the EU, it has been following and (re)acting to EU policies and actions in diverse ways, though the Russian rhetoric towards the EU has been harsher than its political moves, due to an understanding of the EU as being a limited player in the area. Therefore, Russia does not perceive the EU as a potential ‘game changer’.

Russia’s Energy Policies in Eurasia: Empowerment or Entrapment?

This chapter examines the place of energy and energy diplomacy in Moscow’s assessment of its national interest and in the implementation of its foreign policy. Looking at Russia’s main policy options, it argues that Moscow has been pursuing the goal of internal consolidation as the basis for its external projection. This is visible in its multivectorial foreign policy where Russia seeks to affirm its interests in a wider area, with primacy being given to the post-Soviet space, in particular the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Multipolarity has been defined as the key to the organisation of the international system where Russia wants to be treated as a major partner. In this context of reassertion the role of resource diplomacy has been central. Oil and gas as sources of substantial revenue have allowed the stabilisation of internal politics, the centralisation of power and the consolidation of the regime. Russia’s power projection has to a great extent been the result of this consolidation, demonstrating the relevance attached by Russian leaders to the internal/external dichotomy: Russia possesses great energy resources — its territory contains 1/3 of the world natural gas reserves, 1/10 of oil reserves, 1/5 of coal reserves and 14% of uranium reserves — and a powerful fuel and energy complex, which is the basis of economic development and the instrument of carrying the internal and external policy. (Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation, 2003, p. 2)

International Relations in Portugal: The State of the Field and Beyond

This paper appraises the evolution of International Relations (IR) as an academic discipline in Portugal before engaging in an examination of the present state of the field. It is concerned with historical issues, associated with the disciplines journey towards its standing as a social science in its own right in Portuguese intellectual life. It considers institutional developments including those recently generated by the implementation of the Bologna framework for IR courses taught at national academic institutions. The Appendix offers an introduction to Portuguese IR publications.

Eurasia at the Heart of Russian Politics: Dynamics of (In)Dependence in a Complex Setting

This chapter looks at how Russia’s policies towards the greater Caspian Basin — specifically relations with its near neighbours in Transcaucasia and Central Asia — affect these countries’ foreign policies. This analysis focuses on the ways in which these states’ foreign policies are projected or constrained by Russia. Assuming the former Soviet space as an area of influence, Russia has been seeking to advance its interests in Eurasia, be they political, economic, sociocultural or military. However, this has not been pursued by Russia without constraints: Moscow has to deal with the policies of these countries (and other players in the area, including nongovernmental actors), with regard to their relative (in) dependence and their (mis) alignments with Moscow’s goals. It is on the basis of policies of greater proximity or distance to Russia that this chapter departs to analyse the multi-level and multi-actor cooperation/competition dynamics in the region, and the place and role of Russia in these dynamics.

Globalization, Regionalization, and Europeanization: Impact and Effects on Polish Policy-Making

The fast-developing processes of globalization, with increased political and economic interdependence, along with competition; regionalization dynamics revealing more localized ambitions and either constraining or advancing intentions and policies; and Europeanization as a particular dynamic related to the EU role as a global actor, applied to the Polish post-communist transition, constitute our vectors of analysis. This essay aims to address the simultaneously interconnected and heterogeneous responses of Polish post-communist course of change to global and regional processes, including European integration. In this line of research, we search for answers to how the linkages among globalization, regionalization, and Europeanization work in the case of Polish post-communist transition. This will be pursued through an analysis of the democratization course, mainly regarding political, institutional and social aspects, and economic integration. Despite elements of complementarity and resistance in the working relationships among the three concepts, which are highly debatable, we find they have substantial implications on Polish policy-making. These implications include adjustment and bargaining between demands and concessions, resulting in gains and losses, though despite the negative effects associated and acknowledged, the fact of Poland pursuing the course of integration in the EU reveals an equation of cost–benefit, in favor of the EU.