Maria T. Morandi

Nanoparticle-induced platelet aggregation and vascular thrombosis

Ever increasing use of engineered carbon nanoparticles in nanopharmacology for selective imaging, sensor or drug delivery systems has increased the potential for blood platelet–nanoparticle interactions. We studied the effects of engineered and combustion‐derived carbon nanoparticles on human platelet aggregation in vitro and rat vascular thrombosis in vivo. Multiplewall (MWNT), singlewall (SWNT) nanotubes, C60 fullerenes (C60CS) and mixed carbon nanoparticles (MCN) (0.2–300 μg ml−1) were investigated. Nanoparticles were compared with standard urban particulate matter (SRM1648, average size 1.4 μm). Platelet function was studied using lumi aggregometry, phase‐contrast, immunofluorescence and transmission electron microscopy, flow cytometry, zymography and pharmacological inhibitors of platelet aggregation. Vascular thrombosis was induced by ferric chloride and the rate of thrombosis was measured, in the presence of carbon particles, with an ultrasonic flow probe. Carbon particles, except C60CS, stimulated platelet aggregation (MCNSWNT>MWNT>SRM1648) and accelerated the rate of vascular thrombosis in rat carotid arteries with a similar rank order of efficacy. All particles resulted in upregulation of GPIIb/IIIa in platelets. In contrast, particles differentially affected the release of platelet granules, as well as the activity of thromboxane‐, ADP, matrix metalloproteinase‐ and protein kinase C‐dependent pathways of aggregation. Furthermore, particle‐induced aggregation was inhibited by prostacyclin and S‐nitroso‐glutathione, but not by aspirin. Thus, some carbon nanoparticles and microparticles have the ability to activate platelets and enhance vascular thrombosis. These observations are of importance for the pharmacological use of carbon nanoparticles and pathology of urban particulate matter.

Influence of ambient (outdoor) sources on residential indoor and personal PM2.5 concentrations: Analyses of RIOPA data

The Relationship of Indoor, Outdoor and Personal Air (RIOPA) study was designed to investigate residential indoor, outdoor and personal exposures to several classes of air pollutants, including volatile organic compounds, carbonyls and fine particles (PM2.5). Samples were collected from summer, 1999 to spring, 2001 in Houston (TX), Los Angeles (CA) and Elizabeth (NJ). Indoor, outdoor and personal PM2.5 samples were collected at 212 nonsmoking residences, 162 of which were sampled twice. Some homes were chosen due to close proximity to ambient sources of one or more target analytes, while others were farther from sources. Median indoor, outdoor and personal PM2.5 mass concentrations for these three sites were 14.4, 15.5 and 31.4 μg/m3, respectively. The contributions of ambient (outdoor) and nonambient sources to indoor and personal concentrations were quantified using a single compartment box model with measured air exchange rate and a random component superposition (RCS) statistical model. The median contribution of ambient sources to indoor PM2.5 concentrations using the mass balance approach was estimated to be 56% for all study homes (63%, 52% and 33% for California, New Jersey and Texas study homes, respectively). Reasonable variations in model assumptions alter median ambient contributions by less than 20%. The mean of the distribution of ambient contributions across study homes agreed well for the mass balance and RCS models, but the distribution was somewhat broader when calculated using the mass balance model with measured air exchange rates.

Outdoor, Indoor, and Personal Exposure to VOCs in Children

We measured volatile organic compound (VOC) exposures in multiple locations for a diverse population of children who attended two inner-city schools in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Fifteen common VOCs were measured at four locations: outdoors (O), indoors at school (S), indoors at home (H), and in personal samples (P). Concentrations of most VOCs followed the general pattern O ≈ S < P ≤ H across the measured microenvironments. The S and O environments had the smallest and H the largest influence on personal exposure to most compounds. A time-weighted model of P exposure using all measured microenvironments and time–activity data provided little additional explanatory power beyond that provided by using the H measurement alone. Although H and P concentrations of most VOCs measured in this study were similar to or lower than levels measured in recent personal monitoring studies of adults and children in the United States, p-dichlorobenzene was the notable exception to this pattern, with upper-bound exposures more than 100 times greater than those found in other studies of children. Median and upper-bound H and P exposures were well above health benchmarks for several compounds, so outdoor measurements likely underestimate long-term health risks from children’s exposure to these compounds.

Relationship of Indoor, Outdoor and Personal Air (RIOPA) study: study design, methods and quality assurance/control results.

The Relationship of Indoor, Outdoor and Personal Air (RIOPA) Study was undertaken to evaluate the contribution of outdoor sources of air toxics, as defined in the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, to indoor concentrations and personal exposures. The concentrations of 18 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 17 carbonyl compounds, and fine particulate matter mass (PM2.5) were measured using 48-h outdoor, indoor and personal air samples collected simultaneously. PM2.5 mass, as well as several component species (elemental carbon, organic carbon, polyaromatic hydrocarbons and elemental analysis) were also measured; only PM 2.5 mass is reported here. Questionnaires were administered to characterize homes, neighborhoods and personal activities that might affect exposures. The air exchange rate was also measured in each home. Homes in close proximity (<0.5 km) to sources of air toxics were preferentially (2:1) selected for sampling. Approximately 100 non-smoking households in each of Elizabeth, NJ, Houston, TX, and Los Angeles, CA were sampled (100, 105, and 105 respectively) with second visits performed at 84, 93, and 81 homes in each city, respectively. VOC samples were collected at all homes, carbonyls at 90% and PM2.5 at 60% of the homes. Personal samples were collected from nonsmoking adults and a portion of children living in the target homes. This manuscript provides the RIOPA study design and quality control and assurance data. The results from the RIOPA study can potentially provide information on the influence of ambient sources on indoor air concentrations and exposure for many air toxics and will furnish an opportunity to evaluate exposure models for these compounds.

Field Method Comparison between Passive Air Samplers and Continuous Monitors for VOCs and NO2 in El Paso, Texas

Abstract This study evaluates the performance of Model 3300 Ogawa Passive Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Samplers and 3M 3520 Organic Vapor Monitors (OVMs) by comparing integrated passive sampling concentrations to averaged hourly NO2 and volatile organic compound (VOC) measurements at two sites in El Paso, TX. Sampling periods were three time intervals (3-day weekend, 4-day weekday, and 7-day weekly) for three consecutive weeks. OVM concentrations were corrected for ambient pressure to account for higher elevation. Precise results (<5% relative standard deviation, RSD) were found for NO2 measurements from collocated Ogawa samplers. Reproducibility was lower from duplicate OVMs for BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene isomers) VOCs (≥7% RSD for 2-day samples) with better precision for longer sampling periods. Comparison of Ogawa NO2 samplers with chemiluminescence measurements averaged over the same time period suggested potential calibration problems with the chemiluminescence analyzer. For BTEX species, generally good agreement was obtained between OVMs and automated-gas chromatograph (auto-GC) measurements. The OVMs successfully tracked increasing levels of VOCs recorded by the auto-GCs.

Formaldehyde in residences: long‐term indoor concentrations and influencing factors

UNLABELLED Chronic human exposure to formaldehyde is significantly increased by indoor sources. However, information is lacking on why these exposures appear to persist in older homes with aging sources. We use data from the Relationships of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal Air study to evaluate 179 residences, most of which were older than 5 years. We assess the dependence of indoor formaldehyde concentrations (C(in)) on building type and age, whole-house air exchange rate, indoor temperature, and seasonal changes. Indoor formaldehyde had mean and median concentrations of 17 ppb, and primarily originated from indoor sources. The factors we analyzed did not explain much of the variance in C(in), probably because of their limited influence on mechanisms that control the long-term release of formaldehyde from aging pressed-wood products bound with urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins. We confirmed that the mitigating effects of ventilation on C(in) decrease with time through the analysis of data for new homes available in the literature, and through models. We also explored source control strategies and conclude that source removal is the most effective way to decrease chronic exposures to formaldehyde in existing homes. For new homes, reducing indoor sources and using pressed-wood with lower UF content are likely the best solutions. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS Formaldehyde concentrations in homes due to indoor sources appear to persist throughout the lifetime of residences. Increases in ventilation rates are most effective in decreasing indoor concentrations in new homes where formaldehyde levels are high or when homes are tight. Consequently, other alternatives need to be promoted such as decreasing the amount of pressed-wood products with urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins in homes or reducing the UF content in these materials.

Fine organic particulate matter dominates indoor-generated PM2.5 in RIOPA homes

Residential indoor and outdoor fine particle (PM2.5) organic (OC) and elemental carbon (EC) concentrations (48 h) were measured at 173 homes in Houston, TX, Los Angeles County, CA, and Elizabeth, NJ as part of the Relationship of Indoor, Outdoor and Personal Air (RIOPA) study. The adsorption of organic vapors on the quartz fiber sampling filter (a positive artifact) was substantial indoors and out, accounting for 36% and 37% of measured OC at the median indoor (8.2 μg C/m3) and outdoor (5.0 μg C/m3) OC concentrations, respectively. Uncorrected, adsorption artifacts would lead to substantial overestimation of particulate OC both indoors and outdoors. After artifact correction, the mean particulate organic matter (OM=1.4 OC) concentration indoors (9.8 μg/m3) was twice the mean outdoor concentration (4.9 μg/m3). The mean EC concentration was 1.1 μg/m3 both indoors and outdoors. OM accounted for 29%, 30% and 29% of PM2.5 mass outdoors and 48%, 55% and 61% of indoor PM2.5 mass in Los Angeles Co., Elizabeth and Houston study homes, respectively. Indirect evidence provided by species mass balance results suggests that PM2.5 nitrate (not measured) was largely lost during outdoor-to-indoor transport, as reported by Lunden et al. This results in dramatic changes with outdoor-to-indoor transport in the mass and composition of ambient-generated PM2.5 at California homes. On average, 71% to 76% of indoor OM was emitted or formed indoors, calculated by (1) Random Component Superposition (RCS) model and (2) non-linear fit of OC and air exchange rate data to the mass balance model. Assuming that all particles penetrate indoors (P=1) and there is no particle loss indoors (k=0), a lower bound estimate of 41% of indoor OM was indoor-generated (mean). OM appears to be the predominant species in indoor-generated PM2.5, based on species mass balance results. Particulate OM emitted or formed indoors is substantial enough to alter the concentration, composition and behavior of indoor PM2.5. One interesting effect of increased indoor OM concentrations is a shift in the gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from the gas to the particle phase with outdoor-to-indoor transport.

DNA damage in outdoor workers occupationally exposed to environmental air pollutants

Background: Health concerns about the exposure to genotoxic and carcinogenic agents in the air are particularly significant for outdoor workers in less developed countries. Aims: To investigate the association between personal exposure to a group of air pollutants and severity of DNA damage in outdoor workers from two Mexican cities. Methods: DNA damage (Comet assay) and personal exposure to volatile organic compounds, PM2.5, and ozone were investigated in 55 outdoor and indoor workers from México City and Puebla. Results: In México City, outdoor workers had greater DNA damage, reflected by a longer tail length, than indoor workers (median 46.8 v 30.1 μm), and a greater percentage of highly damaged cells (cells with tail length ⩾41 μm); in Puebla, outdoor and indoor workers had similar DNA damage. There were more alkali labile sites in outdoor than indoor workers. The DNA damage magnitude was positively correlated with PM2.5 and ozone exposure. Outdoor and indoor workers with ⩾60% of highly damaged cells (highly damaged workers) had significantly higher exposures to PM2.5, ozone, and some volatile organic compounds. The main factors associated with the highly damaged workers were ozone, PM2.5, and 1-ethyl-2-methyl benzene exposure. Conclusions: With this approach, the effects of some air pollutants could be correlated with biological endpoints from the Comet assay. It is suggested that the use of personal exposure assessment and biological endpoints evaluation could be an important tool to generate a more precise assessment of the associated potential health risks.

Passive dosimeters for nitrogen dioxide in personal/indoor air sampling: a review.

Accurate measurement of nitrogen dioxide concentrations in both outdoor and indoor environments, including personal exposures, is a fundamental step for linking atmospheric nitrogen dioxide levels to potential health and ecological effects. The measurement has been conducted generally in two ways: active (pumped) sampling and passive (diffusive) sampling. Diffusion samplers, initially developed and used for workplace air monitoring, have been found to be useful and cost-effective alternatives to conventional pumped samplers for monitoring ambient, indoor and personal exposures at the lower concentrations found in environmental settings. Since the 1970s, passive samplers have been deployed for ambient air monitoring in urban and rural sites, and to determine personal and indoor exposure to NO2. This article reviews the development of NO2 passive samplers, the sampling characteristics of passive samplers currently available, and their application in ambient and indoor air monitoring and personal exposure studies. The limitations and advantages of the various passive sampler geometries (i.e., tube, badge, and radial type) are also discussed. This review provides researchers and risk assessors with practical information about NO2 passive samplers, especially useful when designing field sampling strategies for exposure and indoor/outdoor air sampling.

Development of a modified factor analysis/multiple regression model to apportion suspended particulate matter in a complex urban airshed

Abstract A modified factor analysis/multiple regression (FA/MR) receptor-oriented source apportionment model has been developed which permits application of FA/MR statistical methods when some of the tracers are not unique to an individual source type. The new method uses factor and regression analyses to apportion non-unique tracer ambient concentrations in situations where there are unique tracers for all sources contributing to the non-unique tracer except one, and ascribes the residual concentration to that source. This value is then used as the source tracer in the final FA/MR apportionment model for ambient paniculate matter. In addition, factor analyses results are complemented with examination of regression residuals in order to optimize the number of identifiable sources. The new method has been applied to identify and apportion the sources of inhalable particulate matter (IPM; D 50 15 μm ), Pb and Fe at a site in Newark, NJ. The model indicated that sulfate/secondary aerosol contributed an average of 25.8 μ −3 (48%) to IPM concentrations, followed by soil resuspension (8.2 μ −3 or 15%), paint spraying/paint pigment (6.7/gmm −3 or 13%), fuel oil burning/space heating (4.3 μ −3 or 8 %), industrial emissions (3.6 μm −3 or 7 %) and motor vehicle exhaust (2.7 μ −3 or 15 %). Contributions to ambient Pb concentrations were: motor vehicle exhaust (0.16μm −3 or 36%), soil resuspension (0.10μm −3 or 24%), fuel oil burning/space heating (0.08μm −3 or 18%), industrial emissions (0.07 μ −3 or 17 %), paint spraying/paint pigment (0.036 μm −3 or 9 %) and zinc related sources (0.022 μ −3 or 5 %). Contributions to ambient Fe concentrations were: soil resuspension (0.43μ −3 or 51%), paint spraying/paint pigment (0.28 μm −3 or 33 %) and industrial emissions (0.15 μ −3 or 18 %). The models were validated by comparing partial source profiles calculated from modeling results with the corresponding published source emissions composition.