Maria Teresa Agapito

Melatonin-induced increased activity of the respiratory chain complexes I and IV can prevent mitochondrial damage induced by ruthenium red in vivo

Melatonin displays antioxidant and free radical scavenger properties. Due to its ability with which it enters cells, these protective effects are manifested in all subcellular compartments. Recent studies suggest a role for melatonin in mitochondrial metabolism. To study the effects of melatonin on this organelle we used ruthenium red to induce mitochondrial damage and oxidative stress. The results show that melatonin (10 mg/kg i.p.) can increase the activity of the mitochondrial respiratory complexes I and IV after its administration in vivo in a time‐dependent manner; these changes correlate well with the half‐life of the indole in plasma. Melatonin administration also prevented the decrease in the activity of complexes I and IV due to ruthenium red (60 μg/kg i.p.) administration. At this dose, ruthenium red did not induce lipid peroxidation but it significantly reduced the activity of the antioxidative enzyme glutathione peroxidase, an effect also counteracted by melatonin. These results suggest that melatonin modulates mitochondrial respiratory activity, an effect that may account for some of the protective properties of the indoleamine. The mitochondria‐modulating role of melatonin may be of physiological significance since it seems that the indoleamine is concentrated into normal mitochondria. The data also support a pharmacological use of melatonin in drug‐induced mitochondrial damage in vivo.

Melatonin stimulates the activity of the detoxifying enzyme glutathione peroxidase in several tissues of chicks

Abstract: The pineal hormone melatonin has been shown to directly scavenge free radicals and to stimulate, in the mammalian brain, at least one enzyme, glutathione peroxidase, which reduces free radical generation. In the present studies, we examined the effect of melatonin on glutathione peroxidase activity in several tissues of an avian species. Melatonin (500 μg/kg), when injected into chicks, increased glutathione peroxidase activity within 90 min in every tissue examined. Tissue melatonin levels, measured by radioimmunoassay, also increased following its peripheral administration. Depending on the tissue, the measured increases in melatonin varied from 75% to 1,300% over the control values. The melatonin‐induced increases in glutathione peroxidase activity varied with the tissue and were between 22% and 134%. These percentage increases in glutathione peroxidase activity were directly correlated with tissue melatonin content. These results suggest that melatonin induces the activity of the detoxifying enzyme, glutathione peroxidase, in several tissues in the chick. The findings also suggest that melatonin would reduce the generation of highly toxic hydroxyl radicals by metabolizing its precursor, hydrogen peroxide. Because of this ability to stimulate glutathione peroxidase activity, melatonin should be considered as a component of the antioxidative defense system in this avian species.

Endogenous rhythms of melatonin, total antioxidant status and superoxide dismutase activity in several tissues of chick and their inhibition by light.

Melatonin was recently shown to be a component of the antioxidative defense system of organisms due to its free radical scavenging ability and to its capacity to stimulate several antioxidant enzymes. In this report, we studied the endogenous rhythm of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) in three different tissues (cerebral cortex, liver and lung) of chick (Gallus domesticus) (three weeks, at age and sacrificed every 2 hr). During the study the chicks were under a light:dark cycle of 12:12. Total antioxidant status of the plasma was correlated with physiological blood melatonin concentrations. Superoxide dismutase activity exhibited a marked 24 hr rhythm in cerebral cortex, lung and liver, with peak activity coincident with the melatonin and total antioxidant status peaks. The exposure of chicks to constant light for 7 days eliminated the melatonin rhythm as well as the peaks in superoxide dismutase activity and the total antioxidant status. These findings suggest that the melatonin rhythm may be related to the nighttime increase in the superoxide dismutase activity and to total antioxidant capacity of the blood.

Superoxide anions mediate veratridine-induced cytochrome c release and caspase activity in bovine chromaffin cells

Mitochondrial mechanisms involved in veratridine‐induced chromaffin cell death have been explored. Exposure to veratridine (30 μM, 1 h) produces cytochrome c release to the cytoplasm that seems to be mediated by superoxide anions and that is blocked by cyclosporin A (10 μM), MnTBAP (10 nM), catalase (100 IU ml−1) and vitamin E (50 μM). Following veratridine treatment, there is an increase in caspase‐like activity, blocked by vitamin E (50 μM) and the mitochondrial permeability transition pore blocker cyclosporin A (10 μM). Superoxide anions open the mitochondrial permeability transition pore in isolated mitochondria, an effect that is blocked by vitamin E (50 μM) and cyclosporin A (10 μM), but not by the Ca2+ uniporter blocker ruthenium red (5 μM). These results strongly suggest that under the stress situation caused by veratridine, superoxide anions become important regulators of mitochondrial function in chromaffin cells. Exposure of isolated bovine chromaffin mitochondria to Ca2+ results in mitochondrial swelling. This effect was prevented by ruthenium red (5 μM) and cyclosporin A (10 μM), while it was not modified by vitamin E (50 μM). Veratridine (30 μM, 1 h) markedly decreased total glutathione and GSH content in bovine chromaffin cells. In conclusion, superoxide anions seem to mediate veratridine‐induced cytochrome c release, decrease in total glutathione, caspase activation and cell death in bovine chromaffin cells.

Intermittent hypoxia and diet-induced obesity: effects on oxidative status, sympathetic tone, plasma glucose and insulin levels, and arterial pressure

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) consists of sleep-related repetitive obstructions of upper airways that generate episodes of recurrent or intermittent hypoxia (IH). OSA commonly generates cardiovascular and metabolic pathologies defining the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). Literature usually links OSA-associated pathologies to IH episodes that would cause an oxidative status and a carotid body-mediated sympathetic hyperactivity. Because cardiovascular and metabolic pathologies in obese patients and those with OSAS are analogous, we used models (24-wk-old Wistar rats) of IH (applied from weeks 22 to 24) and diet-induced obesity (O; animals fed a high-fat diet from weeks 12 to 24) to define the effect of each individual maneuver and their combination on the oxidative status and sympathetic tone of animals, and to quantify cardiovascular and metabolic parameters and their deviation from normality. We found that IH and O cause an oxidative status (increased lipid peroxides and diminished activities of superoxide dismutases), an inflammatory status (augmented C-reactive protein and nuclear factor kappa-B activation), and sympathetic hyperactivity (augmented plasma and renal artery catecholamine levels and synthesis rate); combined treatments worsened those alterations. IH and O augmented liver lipid content and plasma cholesterol, triglycerides, leptin, glycemia, insulin levels, and HOMA index, and caused hypertension; most of these parameters were aggravated when IH and O were combined. IH diminished ventilatory response to hypoxia, and hypercapnia and O created a restrictive ventilatory pattern; a combination of treatments led to restrictive hypoventilation. Data demonstrate that IH and O cause comparable metabolic and cardiovascular pathologies via misregulation of the redox status and sympathetic hyperactivity.

Circadian rhythms of melatonin and serotonin-N-acetyltransferase activity in Procambarus clarkii

Invertebrates have circadian rhythms and exhibit photoperiodism and colour changes. While they lack pineal glands, those that have been investigated contain melatonin. Until now, melatonin has been shown to be present in the photoreceptor organs of this species, but the presence of the rate-limiting enzyme in melatonin synthesis, serotonin-N-acetyltransferase (SNAT, EC 2.3.1.87) has not been investigated. We report here the presence of melatonin and the enzyme SNAT in the eyes (globe plus eyestalk) of the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii. Both melatonin and SNAT activity exhibit circadian variations, with their acrophase during the light phase and their nadir during darkness. These rhythms have the same period, but they are 180° out of phase with respect to those described in vertebrates. SNAT is seemingly different to that reported in vertebrates since EGTA, a calcium chelator, has no protective function as it does in vertebrates.

General redox environment and carotid body chemoreceptor function

Carotid body (CB) chemoreceptor cells detect physiological levels of hypoxia and generate a hyperventilation, homeostatic in nature, aimed to minimize the deleterious effects of hypoxia. Intimate mechanisms involved in oxygen sensing in chemoreceptor cells remain largely unknown, but reactive oxygen species (ROS) had been proposed as mediators of this process. We have determined glutathione levels and calculated glutathione redox potential (E(GSH); indicator of the general redox environment of cells) in rat diaphragms incubated in the presence of oxidizing agents of two types: nonpermeating and permeating through cell membranes; in the latter group, unspecific oxidants and inhibitors of ROS-disposing enzymes were used. Selected concentrations of oxidizing agents were tested for their ability to modify the normoxic and hypoxic activity of chemoreceptor cells measured in vitro as their rate of release of neurotransmitters. Results evidence variable relationships between E(GSH) and the activity of chemoreceptor cells. The independence of chemoreceptor cell activity from the E(GSH) would imply that the ability of the CB to play its homeostatic role is largely preserved in any pathological or toxicological contingency causing oxidative stress. Consistent with this suggestion, it was also found that CB-mediated hypoxic hyperventilation was not altered by treatment of intact animals with agents that markedly decreased the E(GSH) in all tissues assayed.

Effects of Intermittent Hypoxia on Blood Gases Plasma Catecholamine and Blood Pressure

Obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) is a disorder characterized by repetitive episodes of complete (apnoea) or partial (hypopnoea) obstruction of airflow during sleep. The severity of OSAS is defined by the apnoea hypopnoea index (AHI) or number of obstructive episodes. An AHI greater than 30 is considered severe, but it can reach values higher than 100 in some patients. Associated to the OSA there is high incidence of cardiovascular and neuro-psychiatric pathologies including systemic hypertension, stroke, cardiac arrhythmias and atherosclerosis, diurnal somnolence, anxiety and depression. In the present study we have used a model of intermittent hypoxia (IH) of moderately high intensity (30 episodes/h) to evaluate arterial blood gases and plasma catecholamines as main effectors in determining arterial blood pressure. Male rats were exposed toIH with a regime of 80s, 20% O(2) // 40s, 10%O(2), 8 h/day, 8 or 15 days.Lowering the breathing atmosphere to 10% O(2) reduced arterial blood PO(2) to 56.9 mmHg (nadir HbO(2) 86, 3%). Plasma epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE) levels at the end of 8 and 15 days of IH showed a tendency to increase, being significant the increase of norepinephrine (NE) levels in the group exposed to intermittent hypoxia during 15 days. We conclude that IH causes an increase in sympathetic activity and a concomitant increase in NE levels which in turn would generate an increase in vascular tone and arterial blood pressure.

Role of glutathione redox state in oxygen sensing by carotid body chemoreceptor cells

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the role of glutathione redox state in oxygen sensing by carotid body (CB) chemoreceptor cells. The basic structural traits of the carotid body CB arterial chemoreceptors are presented to understand the relationship between the arterial blood PO2 and the activation of chemoreceptor cells, which are the O2 sensing structures of the CB. The threshold for the detection of the hypoxic stimulus, and the glutathione system causing modifications in the reduced glutathione/oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSG) ratio are discussed.The relationship between GSH/GSSG and the oxygen chemoreception is approached from two different points of view. The GSH/ GSSG levels are measured, followed by calculation of the redox environment of the cells and correlation with the activity of chemoreceptor cells in normoxia and in hypoxia. Data is presented on pharmacological manipulation of the redox environment of the cells, as assessed by GSH/GSSG quotients, and possible correlations with the level of activity of chemoreceptor cells. The possible mechanisms of coupling between ROS and the GSH/GSSG system to the cellular effector machineries are also reviewed.

Influence of lithium salts on chick pineal gland melatonin secretion

Pineal melatonin secretion exhibits a rhythm which is identified as a circadian cycle with a period of between 20 and 28 h in most animals. The melatonin rhythm has an acrophase of about -30 degrees. The aim of this study was determine the effect of lithium on the melatonin rhythm since lithium is usually used as a therapeutic agent in manic-depressive disease. Lithium induced a delay of the melatonin acrophase which reached a value of about -45 degrees; lithium also produced another peak which had an acrophase at about +60 degrees. We speculate that lithium influences either inositol phosphate turnover or it merely changes the profile of the melatonin rhythm.