Marianne J.R. Gittoes

Implications of intra-limb variability on asymmetry analyses

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of intra-limb variability on the calculation of asymmetry with the purpose of informing future analyses. Asymmetry has previously been quantified for discrete kinematic and kinetic variables; however, intra-limb variability has not been routinely included in these analyses. Synchronized lower-limb kinematic and kinetic data were collected from eight trained athletes (age 22 ± 5 years, mass 74.0 ± 8.7 kg, stature 1.79 ± 0.07 m) during maximal velocity sprint running. Asymmetry was quantified using a modified version of the symmetry angle for selected kinematic and kinetic variables. Significant differences (P < 0.05) between left and right values for each variable were calculated to indicate intra-limb variability relative to between-limb differences. Significant asymmetry was present in only 39% of kinematic variables and 23% of kinetic variables analysed. Large kinetic asymmetry values (>90%) were calculated for some athletes that were not significant, due to large intra-limb variability. Variables that displayed significant asymmetry were athlete-specific. Findings highlight the potential for misleading results if intra-limb variability is not included in asymmetry analyses. The exclusion of asymmetry scores for variables not displaying significant asymmetry will be useful when calculating overall asymmetry for different participants and could be applied to future running gait analyses.

Gait asymmetry: Composite scores for mechanical analyses of sprint running

Gait asymmetry analyses are beneficial from clinical, coaching and technology perspectives. Quantifying overall athlete asymmetry would be useful in allowing comparisons between participants, or between asymmetry and other factors, such as sprint running performance. The aim of this study was to develop composite kinematic and kinetic asymmetry scores to quantify athlete asymmetry during maximal speed sprint running. Eight male sprint trained athletes (age 22±5 years, mass 74.0±8.7 kg and stature 1.79±0.07 m) participated in this study. Synchronised sagittal plane kinematic and kinetic data were collected via a CODA motion analysis system, synchronised to two Kistler force plates. Bilateral, lower limb data were collected during the maximal velocity phase of sprint running (velocity=9.05±0.37 ms(-1)). Kinematic and kinetic composite asymmetry scores were developed using the previously established symmetry angle for discrete variables associated with successful sprint performance and comparisons of continuous joint power data. Unlike previous studies quantifying gait asymmetry, the scores incorporated intra-limb variability by excluding variables from the composite scores that did not display significantly larger (p<0.05) asymmetry than intra-limb variability. The variables that contributed to the composite scores and the magnitude of asymmetry observed for each measure varied on an individual participant basis. The new composite scores indicated the inter-participant differences that exist in asymmetry during sprint running and may serve to allow comparisons between overall athlete asymmetry with other important factors such as performance.

Influence of longswing technique on the kinematics and key release parameters of the straddle Tkachev on uneven bars.

Tkachev on uneven bars is a release and re-grasp skill performed using variations of preparatory longswing techniques; the reasons why different techniques are chosen remains unclear. This study examined kinematic and key release parameters specific to three distinct techniques with the aim of understanding the relative benefits of each. During two international artistic gymnastics competitions six arch, straddle and pike longswings preceding the straddle Tkachev were recorded using twin video cameras. Calibration and movement images were digitised and reconstructed using 3D DLT. Shoulder and hip angular kinematics, angular momentum and key release parameters were compared between techniques. In the arch longswing, the first and second hip functional phases began significantly earlier than the straddle or pike. No significant differences were established for release parameters although large effect sizes for horizontal release velocity and angular momenta about the mass centre and bar were reported between the arch and other two variants. Therefore, the arch variant may provide the opportunity to develop more complex combinations following the Tkachev. Providing insight into mechanical advantages of specific longswing techniques, and highlighting those that elicit desirable characteristics offers the potential to provide coaches with objective data on technique selection and ultimately skill development.

Whole-body and multi-joint kinematic control strategy variability during backward rotating dismounts from beam

Abstract The aim of this study was to develop insight into the whole-body and multi-joint kinematic control strategy variability associated with the execution of fundamental backward rotating dismounts from beam. Two-dimensional joint centre coordinate data were obtained for ten backward piked and backward tucked somersault dismount skills performed by four female gymnasts (N = 80 trials). Gymnast-specific and group variability in whole-body and multi-joint discrete kinematic measures were compared for the aerial and impact phase of backward piked and backward tucked skills. The backward tucked skill was executed using a more variable knee joint angular velocity at take-off (mean difference in standard deviation ± SD: −2.6 ± 1.0 rad · s−1; P < 0.01) than the backward piked skill. The variability in the whole-body and multi-joint kinematic responses produced between the impact phases of each skill was gymnast-specific. The greater variability in the localized knee joint action at take-off was considered indicative of the diverse shape element demands and key performance outcomes of the two skills. Self-selected modulations to the multi-joint kinematic strategy used in the impact phase suggested customization of the joint loading adjustments in executing the fundamental dismount skills.

Kinematic adaptations in sprint acceleration performances without and with the constraint of holding a field hockey stick.

The aim of this study was to investigate the technique adaptations made when performing sprint-based tasks without (free condition) and with (constrained condition) the constraints of carrying a field hockey stick. Three free and three constrained maximal sprint accelerations were performed by 18 experienced university male field hockey players (age = 20 ± 1 years, body mass = 73.3 ± 7.1 kg, and stature = 1.78 ± 0.05 m). An automatic motion analysis system tracked sagittal plane active marker locations (200 Hz). M sprint velocity during the 18–22 m (free: 8.03 ± 0.43 m/s; constrained: 7.93 ± 0.36 m/s) interval was significantly (p = 0.03) different between free and constrained conditions. While the M stride length and stride frequency was similar between free and constrained conditions in the 2–13 m capture volume, the free condition elicited a 0.10 m/s faster (p = 0.03) stride velocity. Further significant differences were found between free and constrained kinematic profiles (p ≤ 0.05) for the hip angular velocity at touchdown during the 2–12 m interval of the sprints and in the overall sprint technique coordination between free and constrained conditions. Performance and technique adaptations indicated that sprint-training protocols for field sports should integrate specific equipment constraints to ensure explicit replication of the mechanical demands of the skills underpinning superior performance.

Considerations of force plate transitions on centre of pressure calculation for maximal velocity sprint running

The aims of this study were to evaluate the accuracy of centre of pressure (COP) data obtained during transition of load across the boundary between two force plates, and secondly to examine the effect of such COP data on joint kinetics during sprint running performances. COP data were collected from two piezoelectric force plates as a trolley wheel was rolled across the boundary between the plates. Position data for the trolley were collected using an opto-electronic motion analysis system for comparison with COP data. Mean COP errors during transition across the plate boundary were 0.003 ± 0.002 m relative to a control point. Kinematic and kinetic data were also collected from eight athletes during sprint running trials to demonstrate the sensitivity of the inverse dynamics analysis to COP error for the ground contact phase of the dynamic movement trials. Kinetic sensitivity to the COP error was assessed during the entire stance phase for the ankle, knee, and hip joints and was less than 5% and 3% for joint moment and power data, respectively. Based on the small COP error during transition across plate boundaries, it is recommended that foot contacts overlapping two force plates may be included in inverse dynamics analyses.

Sport-Specific Musculoskeletal Growth and Postural Control in Female Artistic Gymnasts: A 12 month cohort study

Abstract Female gymnasts have been evidenced to experience sport-specific growth, of which broad shoulders and narrow hips are common characteristics. In addition to being a central component of handstand performance, postural control mechanisms, including whole-body and lumbo-pelvic stability, have been identified as risk factors for overuse spinal pathology. The study aimed to develop a fundamental understanding of musculoskeletal growth and postural control responses of female artistic gymnasts in order to extend longitudinal insights into overuse spinal pathology risk. Whole-body anthropometric measures were collected for 12 competitive female gymnasts (age at recruitment: nine to 15 years) at three time points across a 12 month period. Musculoskeletal growth was partially defined as the rate of bicristal-to-biacromial breadth ratio development, and informed shoulder- and pelvis-dominant growth sub-groups. Kinematic and kinetic indicators of postural control were determined for a total of 700 handstand trials. The shoulder-dominant (gymnastics-specific) growth group was found to have significantly greater biomechanical risk for general stability (p < 0.001) than the pelvis-dominant group. Significantly greater lumbo-pelvic risk was demonstrated for the pelvis-dominant group (p < 0.001). Extended idiosyncratic examination of proportional sport-specific growth measures alongside multi-faceted risk monitoring was advocated for the effective development of future overuse pathology prevention protocols.

Physiological effects of motor learning strategies to retrain running gait: A pilot study

An active pregnancy encompasses benefits that apply to both mother and baby. However, before investing resources in interventions aimed at changing or supporting expectant mothers’ physical activity behaviours, it is necessary to have a greater fundamental understanding of the modifiable factors influencing women’s decisions during this time. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the socio-cognitive determinants of physical activity during pregnancy. A mixed methods research approach using a multiphase design framed by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1991, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211) guided the investigation. Following ethical approval and permission to carry out the study, participants were recruited from randomly selected antenatal clinics in the East Kent region of England. Application of the TPB required both qualitative and quantitative cross-sectional data to be collected. Study One (n = 18) involved the elicitation of pregnant women’s beliefs towards being physically active. The modal salient behavioural, normative and control beliefs were used to inform the development of a TPB questionnaire which was implemented during the next phase of the investigation. Study Two (n = 78) examined the predictive utility of the TPB in explaining pregnant women’s physical activity intentions and behaviour and scrutinised the role of past behaviour within this context. Finally, Study Three (n = 10) comprised semi-structured interviews involving community midwives. Meta-inferences maintained the function of improving the validity of the study and advancing the overall aim of the research project. Specifically, triangulation was used to ascertain convergence, corroboration, and correspondence of findings between studies. Whilst results of the individual studies hold merit, meta-inferences point towards the development of three main themes: (1) pregnant women lack access to the necessary information that would allow them to make informed decisions regarding their engagement in physical activities; (2) a co-ordinated effort involving interprofessional collaboration is required to support pregnant women in overcoming barriers associated with regular physical activity participation; and (3) profiling pregnant women according to motivation and behaviour status could serve as a useful and manageable starting point for intervening to produce positive changes in pregnant women’s physical activity behaviour. In normalising physical activity during pregnancy and achieving better health outcomes for mothers and babies, it is necessary to consider the modifiable factors involved in behaviour change, identify opportune moments to intervene, and involve a network of professionals in facilitating and supporting pregnant women’s engagement with physical activities.Life skills are defined as a range of transferrable skills needed for everyday life (Jones and Lavallee, 2009, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 159-167). According to Benson and Saito’s (2001, In P.L. Benson & K.J. Pittman (Eds.), Trends in youth development: Visions, realities and challenges (pp. 135-154). London, UK: Kluwer Academic Publishers) framework for youth development theory and research, life skills impact upon young people’s academic performance, health and well-being. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the relationships between university sports degree students’ life skills (teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem solving & decision making) and their academic self-efficacy, predicted academic performance, health-related quality of life (physical, emotional, social, and work/school functioning), and flourishing. With institutional ethics approval, 423 sports degree students (male = 236, female = 187, mean age = 20.42 ± 2.56 years) completed a survey assessing the main study variables. Standard multiple regression analyses revealed that time management (B = .51, P < .001), problem solving & decision making (B = .23, P < .01), and goal setting (B = .15, P < .05) contributed significantly to students’ academic self-efficacy. Time management was the only significant contributor to students’ predicted academic performance (B = 2.23, P < .001). In terms of health-related quality of life, emotional skills (B = .23, P < .001) were the only significant contributor to students’ emotional functioning, social skills (B = .18, P < .001) were the only contributor to students’ social functioning, and both time management (B = .25, P < .001) and problem solving & decision making (B = .14, P < .05) contributed significantly to students’ work/school functioning. Finally, five life skills contributed significantly to students’ flourishing: social skills (B = .27, P < .001), leadership (B = .26, P < .01), emotional skills (B = .20, P < .001), goal setting (B = .14, P < .01), and time management (B = .13, P < .01). Interpretation of the results suggest that university degree programmes and staff (e.g., lecturers or learning services) should help sports degree students develop these life skills which contribute to their academic performance, health-related quality of life, and flourishing. In practice, staff could provide specific learning sessions during the degree programme, that target the development of key life skills at what is a critical developmental period of young adulthood.This abstract was published in Journal of Sports Sciences : BASES Conference 2017 – Programme and Abstracts on 24 November 2017 (online) available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1378421Reactive strength index (RSI) has been described as an individual’s ability to change quickly from an eccentric to a concentric contraction (Young, 1995, New Studies in Athletics, 10, 825-833). RSI has been used in the practical strength and conditioning setting and exercise science literature as a means of quantifying stretch-shortening cycle performance (Flanagan and Comyns, 2008, Strength and Conditioning Journal, 30, 32-38). A drop jump test has been used extensively to assess an athlete’s RSI capabilities. Recently, RSI has been derived from the average of the best 5 jumps obtained from a series of 10 maximal repeated bilateral hops (10/5 repeated jump test (RJT)) (Harper, Hobbs and Moore, 2011, BASES Student Conference). Limited research exists on the interday reliability and usefulness (ability to detect the smallest worthwhile change) of the 10/5 RJT with no reported research for a female population. This study aimed to assess the reliability and usefulness of RSI derived from the 10/5 RJT for an amateur female field sport population. With institutional ethical approval, 15 female participants (mean age: 21.1 ± 0.9 years; stature: 1.65 ± 0.73 m; body mass: 62.0 ± 5.1 kg) (mean ± s) completed 2 trials of the 10/5 RJT with 60 s rest after a specific warm-up protocol on two testing sessions separated by a minimum of 48 hours. A 10/5 RJT technique familiarisation session preceded the two testing sessions. For all 10/5 RJT trials the participants were instructed to minimise ground contact time and maximise jump height. The best trial from each testing day was used for the interday reliability and usefulness analysis. Acceptable reliability was determined at an ICC ≥ 0.8 and a CV ≤ 10% (Hopkins, 2000, Sports Medicine, 30, 1-15). The reported ICC for RSI was 0.91 (95% CI; 0.76 to 0.97) and the CV was 7.3%. In order to assess the usefulness of the test the typical error (TE) was compared to the smallest worthwhile change (SWC). The SWC for RSI in the 10/5 RJT test was 0.09 units (SWC%: 7.0%), while the TE was 0.14 units. Therefore the usefulness of this test for this female population is rated as ‘marginal’ (Hopkins, 2004, Sportscience, 8, 1-7). The results suggest that the 10/5 RJT is a reliable test for RSI as both criteria for acceptable reliability were satisfied but the ability of the test to detect the SWC is marginal.Metacognition refers to our ability to control, modify, and interpret cognitive activity (Wells & Cartwright-Hatton, 2004, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 385–396). Research suggests dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs can be an important factor in the development and maintenance of mental health problems (Cotter, Yung, Carney, & Drake, 2017, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 90, 25–31). Mental toughness represents a collection of personal resources that may act as a positive indicator of mental health (Gucciardi et al., 2016, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20, 307–311). Therefore the purpose of our study was to assess whether an inverse relationship existed between mental toughness and metacognitive factors associated with psychopathology. Following institutional ethical approval 60 undergraduate university students (mean age: 21.07 ± 4.19 years) studying various sport science related degree programmes voluntarily consented to participate in the current study. Participants completed the Metacognitions Questionnaire-30 (Wells & Cartwright-Hatton, 2004, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 385–396) and Mental Toughness Index (Gucciardi et al., 2015, Journal of Personality, 83, 26–44). Questionnaires were counterbalanced to reduce order effects with participants on average taking nine minutes to complete both questionnaires. A Pearson bivariate correlation recorded significant negative relationships between the mental toughness index, total MCQ-30 (r = –.334, P < 0.01, BCa 95% CI: –.639–.084) scores, positive beliefs about worry (r = –.329, P = < 0.01, BCa 95% CI: –.652–.010), and negative beliefs about thoughts concerning uncontrollability and danger (r = –.330, P = <0.05, BCa 95% CI: –.652–.109) subscale scores. Our investigation suggests that mental toughness is a state-like psychological resource that may contribute to people being less likely to adopt metacognitive beliefs, judgements, and monitoring tendencies associated with the development and maintenance of psychological disorders. More specifically, mental toughness scores were negatively associated with positive beliefs about worry suggesting that participants were unlikely to consider worrying as a means to cope and avoid problems in the future. In addition, responses to items indicative of persistent worrying thoughts that can be accompanied with unpleasant somatic effects were also inversely associated with mental toughness scores. Practitioners may wish to consider developing higher levels of mental toughness as a means of mitigating against the adoption of negative metacognitive processing and in doing so minimise the emergence of negative mental health symptoms (e.g., depression, anxiety).Despite extensive research exploring the psychological phenomenon of flow in performance contexts for individuals, there is a paucity in literature with regards to the experience of group flow in team sports. Whilst group flow has received attention in predominantly non-sporting domains, only a limited amount of research has explicitly explored group flow experiences of athletes (Bakker et al., 2011, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12, 442–450). As such, the aim of this study was to investigate perceptions of group flow experience of athletes that competed in team sports, applying a qualitative framework. A particular emphasis was placed on exploring the characteristics involved in group flow and the factors that facilitate or disrupt this experience. With institutional ethical approval, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight (N = 8) athletes (mean age: 24.0 ± 3.96, years’ experience playing their sport 9.9 ± 2.17) from a variety of standards (ranging from national to recreational), and sports (including soccer, rugby, tennis doubles, camogie, and handball). The trustworthiness of the data was established through peer debriefs, critical peer review, and member checking. Subsequent data analysis included both inductive and deductive analysis, based on Sparkes and Smith’s (2013, Qualitative research methods in sport, exercise and health: From process to product. London: Routledge) recommendations. Inductive analysis created higher order themes from the raw data, and these themes were deductively coded into Csikszentmihalyi’s (2002, Flow: The classic work on how to achieve happiness. 2nd ed. London. Rider Books) model of flow, producing eight characteristics describing the experience of group flow. When athletes experienced group flow they also perceived an enhancement in team performance, and shared understanding with teammates. In particular, a perceived shared understanding between teammates was associated with heightened automaticity of movement and decisions. Group flow was reported to be facilitated by high levels of confidence within the team at both an individual and collective level, and by positive team play and interactions. Group flow disruptors included negative interactions from team-mates, such as criticism. The current study provides a detailed understanding of athletes’ perceptions of group flow in relation to current flow theories, with considerations outlined for theoretical development and practical application of developing group flow.It is hypothesised that the human unconscious consists of two layers: the personal unconscious and collective unconscious (Jung, 1959, The archetypes and the collective unconscious. London: Routledge). Personal experience is theorised to define the former while inherent behavioural patterns, dubbed archetypes, form the latter, these being universal to all human minds. Previous studies reveal that individuals exhibiting mature archetypes, specifically the warrior archetype, can enhance development and performance in sport. (Moore & Gillete, 1990, King, warrior, magician, lover: rediscovering the archetypes of the mature masculine. San Francisco: Harper Collins Publishers). The psychosocial journey from immature hero to mature warrior is conceptualised as a complex interweaving between an individual’s collective unconscious, inherited self, and environment that is yet to be contextualised. Therefore, the aims of this study on talent development and performance in English football academies are to explore the implications of the immature and mature archetypes called the hero and the warrior, and their bipolar counterparts the bully and the coward, and the sadist and the masochist. This is with a view to exploring the impact of various talent development environments and coaching methods on the psychosocial development of football players. Following ethical approval, a two stage ethnographic study was conducted using an interpretist approach. Stage one was comprised of eight field observations (four per team) of an under nine and under ten team in a category three English football academy. In stage two semi-structured interviews with key academy staff members concerning their experiences with and perceptions of the participants and the club’s talent pathway to establish major and minor themes. Results indicate that although they are considered psychosocially immature, participants were accessing the warrior/hero and their bipolar archetypes numerous times during one session/ game. Participants who displayed behaviours of the warrior and hero archetypes regularly were perceived by academy staff to be developing and performing more effectively in comparison to participants habitually accessing the bipolar archetypes. Results also show a potential link between the use of planned traumas in a situational based approach underpinned by a warrior/hero-based culture and effective development of these archetypes. Further research is required to fully comprehend the psychosocial maturation process from the immature to the mature warrior archetype and the mediators to psychosocial growth before stronger conclusions are made. Correspondingly, the researcher recommends that practitioners in English football academies identify the archetypes that an athlete is displaying and facilitate appropriate experiences to enhance development and performance.This abstract was published in Journal of Sports Sciences : BASES Conference 2017 – Programme and Abstracts on 24 November 2017 (online) available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1378421

Footstrike kinematic effects of motor learning strategies to retrain running gait

An active pregnancy encompasses benefits that apply to both mother and baby. However, before investing resources in interventions aimed at changing or supporting expectant mothers’ physical activity behaviours, it is necessary to have a greater fundamental understanding of the modifiable factors influencing women’s decisions during this time. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the socio-cognitive determinants of physical activity during pregnancy. A mixed methods research approach using a multiphase design framed by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1991, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179-211) guided the investigation. Following ethical approval and permission to carry out the study, participants were recruited from randomly selected antenatal clinics in the East Kent region of England. Application of the TPB required both qualitative and quantitative cross-sectional data to be collected. Study One (n = 18) involved the elicitation of pregnant women’s beliefs towards being physically active. The modal salient behavioural, normative and control beliefs were used to inform the development of a TPB questionnaire which was implemented during the next phase of the investigation. Study Two (n = 78) examined the predictive utility of the TPB in explaining pregnant women’s physical activity intentions and behaviour and scrutinised the role of past behaviour within this context. Finally, Study Three (n = 10) comprised semi-structured interviews involving community midwives. Meta-inferences maintained the function of improving the validity of the study and advancing the overall aim of the research project. Specifically, triangulation was used to ascertain convergence, corroboration, and correspondence of findings between studies. Whilst results of the individual studies hold merit, meta-inferences point towards the development of three main themes: (1) pregnant women lack access to the necessary information that would allow them to make informed decisions regarding their engagement in physical activities; (2) a co-ordinated effort involving interprofessional collaboration is required to support pregnant women in overcoming barriers associated with regular physical activity participation; and (3) profiling pregnant women according to motivation and behaviour status could serve as a useful and manageable starting point for intervening to produce positive changes in pregnant women’s physical activity behaviour. In normalising physical activity during pregnancy and achieving better health outcomes for mothers and babies, it is necessary to consider the modifiable factors involved in behaviour change, identify opportune moments to intervene, and involve a network of professionals in facilitating and supporting pregnant women’s engagement with physical activities.Life skills are defined as a range of transferrable skills needed for everyday life (Jones and Lavallee, 2009, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 159-167). According to Benson and Saito’s (2001, In P.L. Benson & K.J. Pittman (Eds.), Trends in youth development: Visions, realities and challenges (pp. 135-154). London, UK: Kluwer Academic Publishers) framework for youth development theory and research, life skills impact upon young people’s academic performance, health and well-being. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the relationships between university sports degree students’ life skills (teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem solving & decision making) and their academic self-efficacy, predicted academic performance, health-related quality of life (physical, emotional, social, and work/school functioning), and flourishing. With institutional ethics approval, 423 sports degree students (male = 236, female = 187, mean age = 20.42 ± 2.56 years) completed a survey assessing the main study variables. Standard multiple regression analyses revealed that time management (B = .51, P < .001), problem solving & decision making (B = .23, P < .01), and goal setting (B = .15, P < .05) contributed significantly to students’ academic self-efficacy. Time management was the only significant contributor to students’ predicted academic performance (B = 2.23, P < .001). In terms of health-related quality of life, emotional skills (B = .23, P < .001) were the only significant contributor to students’ emotional functioning, social skills (B = .18, P < .001) were the only contributor to students’ social functioning, and both time management (B = .25, P < .001) and problem solving & decision making (B = .14, P < .05) contributed significantly to students’ work/school functioning. Finally, five life skills contributed significantly to students’ flourishing: social skills (B = .27, P < .001), leadership (B = .26, P < .01), emotional skills (B = .20, P < .001), goal setting (B = .14, P < .01), and time management (B = .13, P < .01). Interpretation of the results suggest that university degree programmes and staff (e.g., lecturers or learning services) should help sports degree students develop these life skills which contribute to their academic performance, health-related quality of life, and flourishing. In practice, staff could provide specific learning sessions during the degree programme, that target the development of key life skills at what is a critical developmental period of young adulthood.This abstract was published in Journal of Sports Sciences : BASES Conference 2017 – Programme and Abstracts on 24 November 2017 (online) available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1378421Reactive strength index (RSI) has been described as an individual’s ability to change quickly from an eccentric to a concentric contraction (Young, 1995, New Studies in Athletics, 10, 825-833). RSI has been used in the practical strength and conditioning setting and exercise science literature as a means of quantifying stretch-shortening cycle performance (Flanagan and Comyns, 2008, Strength and Conditioning Journal, 30, 32-38). A drop jump test has been used extensively to assess an athlete’s RSI capabilities. Recently, RSI has been derived from the average of the best 5 jumps obtained from a series of 10 maximal repeated bilateral hops (10/5 repeated jump test (RJT)) (Harper, Hobbs and Moore, 2011, BASES Student Conference). Limited research exists on the interday reliability and usefulness (ability to detect the smallest worthwhile change) of the 10/5 RJT with no reported research for a female population. This study aimed to assess the reliability and usefulness of RSI derived from the 10/5 RJT for an amateur female field sport population. With institutional ethical approval, 15 female participants (mean age: 21.1 ± 0.9 years; stature: 1.65 ± 0.73 m; body mass: 62.0 ± 5.1 kg) (mean ± s) completed 2 trials of the 10/5 RJT with 60 s rest after a specific warm-up protocol on two testing sessions separated by a minimum of 48 hours. A 10/5 RJT technique familiarisation session preceded the two testing sessions. For all 10/5 RJT trials the participants were instructed to minimise ground contact time and maximise jump height. The best trial from each testing day was used for the interday reliability and usefulness analysis. Acceptable reliability was determined at an ICC ≥ 0.8 and a CV ≤ 10% (Hopkins, 2000, Sports Medicine, 30, 1-15). The reported ICC for RSI was 0.91 (95% CI; 0.76 to 0.97) and the CV was 7.3%. In order to assess the usefulness of the test the typical error (TE) was compared to the smallest worthwhile change (SWC). The SWC for RSI in the 10/5 RJT test was 0.09 units (SWC%: 7.0%), while the TE was 0.14 units. Therefore the usefulness of this test for this female population is rated as ‘marginal’ (Hopkins, 2004, Sportscience, 8, 1-7). The results suggest that the 10/5 RJT is a reliable test for RSI as both criteria for acceptable reliability were satisfied but the ability of the test to detect the SWC is marginal.Metacognition refers to our ability to control, modify, and interpret cognitive activity (Wells & Cartwright-Hatton, 2004, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 385–396). Research suggests dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs can be an important factor in the development and maintenance of mental health problems (Cotter, Yung, Carney, & Drake, 2017, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 90, 25–31). Mental toughness represents a collection of personal resources that may act as a positive indicator of mental health (Gucciardi et al., 2016, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20, 307–311). Therefore the purpose of our study was to assess whether an inverse relationship existed between mental toughness and metacognitive factors associated with psychopathology. Following institutional ethical approval 60 undergraduate university students (mean age: 21.07 ± 4.19 years) studying various sport science related degree programmes voluntarily consented to participate in the current study. Participants completed the Metacognitions Questionnaire-30 (Wells & Cartwright-Hatton, 2004, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 385–396) and Mental Toughness Index (Gucciardi et al., 2015, Journal of Personality, 83, 26–44). Questionnaires were counterbalanced to reduce order effects with participants on average taking nine minutes to complete both questionnaires. A Pearson bivariate correlation recorded significant negative relationships between the mental toughness index, total MCQ-30 (r = –.334, P < 0.01, BCa 95% CI: –.639–.084) scores, positive beliefs about worry (r = –.329, P = < 0.01, BCa 95% CI: –.652–.010), and negative beliefs about thoughts concerning uncontrollability and danger (r = –.330, P = <0.05, BCa 95% CI: –.652–.109) subscale scores. Our investigation suggests that mental toughness is a state-like psychological resource that may contribute to people being less likely to adopt metacognitive beliefs, judgements, and monitoring tendencies associated with the development and maintenance of psychological disorders. More specifically, mental toughness scores were negatively associated with positive beliefs about worry suggesting that participants were unlikely to consider worrying as a means to cope and avoid problems in the future. In addition, responses to items indicative of persistent worrying thoughts that can be accompanied with unpleasant somatic effects were also inversely associated with mental toughness scores. Practitioners may wish to consider developing higher levels of mental toughness as a means of mitigating against the adoption of negative metacognitive processing and in doing so minimise the emergence of negative mental health symptoms (e.g., depression, anxiety).Despite extensive research exploring the psychological phenomenon of flow in performance contexts for individuals, there is a paucity in literature with regards to the experience of group flow in team sports. Whilst group flow has received attention in predominantly non-sporting domains, only a limited amount of research has explicitly explored group flow experiences of athletes (Bakker et al., 2011, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12, 442–450). As such, the aim of this study was to investigate perceptions of group flow experience of athletes that competed in team sports, applying a qualitative framework. A particular emphasis was placed on exploring the characteristics involved in group flow and the factors that facilitate or disrupt this experience. With institutional ethical approval, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight (N = 8) athletes (mean age: 24.0 ± 3.96, years’ experience playing their sport 9.9 ± 2.17) from a variety of standards (ranging from national to recreational), and sports (including soccer, rugby, tennis doubles, camogie, and handball). The trustworthiness of the data was established through peer debriefs, critical peer review, and member checking. Subsequent data analysis included both inductive and deductive analysis, based on Sparkes and Smith’s (2013, Qualitative research methods in sport, exercise and health: From process to product. London: Routledge) recommendations. Inductive analysis created higher order themes from the raw data, and these themes were deductively coded into Csikszentmihalyi’s (2002, Flow: The classic work on how to achieve happiness. 2nd ed. London. Rider Books) model of flow, producing eight characteristics describing the experience of group flow. When athletes experienced group flow they also perceived an enhancement in team performance, and shared understanding with teammates. In particular, a perceived shared understanding between teammates was associated with heightened automaticity of movement and decisions. Group flow was reported to be facilitated by high levels of confidence within the team at both an individual and collective level, and by positive team play and interactions. Group flow disruptors included negative interactions from team-mates, such as criticism. The current study provides a detailed understanding of athletes’ perceptions of group flow in relation to current flow theories, with considerations outlined for theoretical development and practical application of developing group flow.It is hypothesised that the human unconscious consists of two layers: the personal unconscious and collective unconscious (Jung, 1959, The archetypes and the collective unconscious. London: Routledge). Personal experience is theorised to define the former while inherent behavioural patterns, dubbed archetypes, form the latter, these being universal to all human minds. Previous studies reveal that individuals exhibiting mature archetypes, specifically the warrior archetype, can enhance development and performance in sport. (Moore & Gillete, 1990, King, warrior, magician, lover: rediscovering the archetypes of the mature masculine. San Francisco: Harper Collins Publishers). The psychosocial journey from immature hero to mature warrior is conceptualised as a complex interweaving between an individual’s collective unconscious, inherited self, and environment that is yet to be contextualised. Therefore, the aims of this study on talent development and performance in English football academies are to explore the implications of the immature and mature archetypes called the hero and the warrior, and their bipolar counterparts the bully and the coward, and the sadist and the masochist. This is with a view to exploring the impact of various talent development environments and coaching methods on the psychosocial development of football players. Following ethical approval, a two stage ethnographic study was conducted using an interpretist approach. Stage one was comprised of eight field observations (four per team) of an under nine and under ten team in a category three English football academy. In stage two semi-structured interviews with key academy staff members concerning their experiences with and perceptions of the participants and the club’s talent pathway to establish major and minor themes. Results indicate that although they are considered psychosocially immature, participants were accessing the warrior/hero and their bipolar archetypes numerous times during one session/ game. Participants who displayed behaviours of the warrior and hero archetypes regularly were perceived by academy staff to be developing and performing more effectively in comparison to participants habitually accessing the bipolar archetypes. Results also show a potential link between the use of planned traumas in a situational based approach underpinned by a warrior/hero-based culture and effective development of these archetypes. Further research is required to fully comprehend the psychosocial maturation process from the immature to the mature warrior archetype and the mediators to psychosocial growth before stronger conclusions are made. Correspondingly, the researcher recommends that practitioners in English football academies identify the archetypes that an athlete is displaying and facilitate appropriate experiences to enhance development and performance.This abstract was published in Journal of Sports Sciences : BASES Conference 2017 – Programme and Abstracts on 24 November 2017 (online) available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1378421

Trial stabilization of running mechanics

Article published in Footwear Science (supplement) on 18 June 2015, available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/19424280.2015.1038622.