Marianne S. Ulriksen

Questioning the Pro‐Poor Agenda: Examining the Links between Social Protection and Poverty

This article investigates an empirical puzzle. Taking the case of Botswana, how is it that poverty is so high, when the country largely conforms to pro‐poor growth strategies? This article suggests that the minimal role of social‐security policies partly explains the relatively high poverty levels. This hypothesis is tested in a large‐N study of developing countries which shows that broad‐based and generous, rather than pro‐poor, social‐security policies impact strongly on poverty levels. The analysis further alludes to other obstacles to poverty reduction, such as economic transformation, which may be combined with a pro‐active social‐policy agenda. Thus, poverty‐alleviating strategies should be refocused to allow for a wider and more coherent role for social‐security policies.

Social policy development and global financial crisis in the open economies of Botswana and Mauritius

The manner in which open economies in a globalized world shape social policy development is highly disputed, as is the impact of the current financial crisis on social policy. One argument is that globalization and economic austerity force social policy dismantling. Alternatively, it is proposed that open economies – facing greater volatility, especially during crisis – push for greater social protection. Using the examples of Botswana and Mauritius, two open middle-income countries, this article suggests that, in fact, both arguments may be correct. The impact of globalization and economic crisis depends on the character of the welfare system already in place and the organized interests underpinning it. In Botswana a main social policy thrust is to increase efficiency in spending, whereas issues of job security and compensation are more prevalent in Mauritius. The findings imply that divergence across welfare systems persists and that, even in crisis, countries often use tried social policy solutions.

Single case studies and theory-testing: the knots and dots of the process-tracing method

Single case studies can provide vital contributions to theory-testing in social science studies. Particularly, by applying the process-tracing method, case studies can test theoretical frameworks through a rigorous research design that ensures substantial empirical leverage. While most scholarly contributions on process-tracing focus on either theory-building or on explaining single outcomes, we discuss how to apply the process-tracing method in theory-testing case studies. Furthermore, unlike the tendency to use examples from classic social science studies, we refer to our own case study of tax reform in Georgia thereby providing a constructive reflection on the practical application of and relevant methodological challenges in applying process-tracing. The strength of the process-tracing method lies in its ability to provide depth and testable substance to theoretical causal explanations.

How social security policies and economic transformation affect poverty and inequality: Lessons for South Africa

This article examines how various characteristics of social and economic policy frameworks affect poverty and inequality levels in developing countries, principally in Botswana and Mauritius. The research findings suggest that poverty and inequality are lower in countries with generous and broad-based – rather than pro-poor – social security policies, and where social policies are complemented by economic policies promoting economic transformation rather than mere economic growth. While South Africas challenges of combating poverty and inequality are shaped by its own historical context, the lessons from other countries offer the opportunity to reflect on the social consequences of various social and economic policy mixtures. In particular, it may be worth considering how to bridge the divide between the economically productive contributors to social security policies and the economically marginalised beneficiaries of such policies.

Mineral wealth and limited redistribution: social transfers and taxation in Botswana

ABSTRACT There are palpable cracks in the Botswana economic growth success story, most apparent in the evidence of persistent and extreme inequality. This article offers new insights into the Botswana puzzle by focusing on redistributive policies – taxation and transfers – as potential mechanisms to tackle poverty and inequality. The historical analysis explores how the minimal redistributive policies reflect the interests of the elites and how these actors justify their policy decisions with reference to the needs of the poor – an important electoral constituency; and it links policy developments to social and economic outcomes where no comprehensive social security system and negligible taxations means that only the well-to-do are in positions of income security and only the most vulnerable receive some relief. Diamond-rich Botswana avoids taxing its citizens. In terms of citizen engagement and ability to pursue social justice this may be a mistake.

Can social protection address both poverty and inequality in principle and practice

The recent expansion of social protection in the Global South has focused on practice (the how) and not on principles (the why). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) endorse social protection as a means of addressing both poverty and inequality. In this article, which contributes to the Special Issue on ‘The principles and practice of social protection’, we focus on the principles that (often implicitly) underlie four types of social protection responses to poverty and inequality. The analysis of moral, economic, political and social arguments shows a convergence on the need to alleviate poverty, but the principled agreement to tackle inequality is weaker as it requires a broader mandate and more extensive state intervention. Regardless of strong moral/social arguments, dominant economic/political arguments are less inclined to accept the type of social protection required to address inequalities.

Welfare Policy Expansion in Botswana and Mauritius Explaining the Causes of Different Welfare Regime Paths

How come two developing countries with similar economic, institutional, and democratic attributes have developed vastly different welfare regimes? Drawing inspiration from the welfare regime literature, the author subjects Botswana and Mauritius to a comparative historical analysis that explores the economic and political trajectories of their welfare policy development. The findings offer both support and modifications to the established and mostly Western-oriented literature. First, politics affect welfare policy development. In developing countries, the rural population can promote welfare policy expansion, but it is middle-class interests that shape the direction of policy development. Second, given the importance of politics, conceptualizations of welfare policies need to include both the spending and the financing side. Finally, the causes of different welfare regime paths need to be examined with attention to the particular economic contexts of developing countries and how welfare and economic policies are interrelated and to some extent path dependent.

The principles and practice of social protection

Social protection programmes used to be seen as the prerogative of rich countries. Over the past 20 years, the Global South has embraced, adapted and popularised social protection as a genuine channel for achieving poverty reduction and development goals. The speed of this expansion, and the urgency of its ever-expanding aims, has perhaps left little time for reflection regarding the philosophical antecedents that underlie social protection. Implicitly or explicitly, these act as a rudder for directing social protection in practice. The diverse portfolio of social protection programmes that have emerged globally provides evidence that the rich and dynamic ideological, political and social settings into which new programmes and institutions are introduced are vital to setting a course for social protection trajectories. Different ethical frameworks can lead to very different social protection outcomes. Principles, founded in thoughts of fairness and moral obligations, need to be clearly articulated. As such, principles can direct social protection policies towards achieving a more just society. However, as social protection initiatives have expanded rapidly, practical issues related to legislation, targeting, financing, implementation, management and technology often take centre-stage, leaving ethical underpinnings understated, or silent. We maintain that a thoughtful analysis of the innovative, bold and enterprising developments in social protection in the Global South, and of the real interactions between principles and practice, can help support a new global chapter for social protection. In this Special Issue, we take as our starting point the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the successors of the Millennium Development Goals, in which social protection is endorsed as an effective instrument for achieving both poverty eradication and inequality reduction. Such a strategic platform undoubtedly augurs well for the future global expansion of social protection. The SDGs will represent a negotiated and pragmatic international consensus around a mandate for action. Yet, such an agreement by its nature does not make explicit an ethical framework (from which principles flow) or a blueprint for action (practice). A robust ethical mandate can help to

Attaching conditionality to cash transfers: Doubtful in principle, but necessary in practice?

In the field of social protection, the idea of conditionality is highly controversial. Conditionality is also an example of a policy mechanism where principles and practice may conflict. With examples from social protection development and debate in Tanzania, we argue that principled ideas and some practical concerns regarding implementation are overshadowed by one dominant practical issue – that of getting political support for social protection.