Marie-Ange Deugnier

Beta1 integrin deletion from the basal compartment of the mammary epithelium affects stem cells

The mammary gland epithelium comprises two major cell types: basal and luminal. Basal cells interact directly with the extracellular matrix (ECM) and express higher levels of the ECM receptors, integrins, than luminal cells. We show that deletion of β1 integrin from basal cells abolishes the regenerative potential of the mammary epithelium and affects mammary gland development. The mutant epithelium was characterized by an abnormal ductal branching pattern and aberrant morphogenesis in pregnancy, although at the end of gestation, the secretory alveoli developed from β1 integrin-positive progenitors. Lack of β1 integrin altered the orientation of the basal-cell division axis and in mutant epithelium, in contrast to control tissue, the progeny of β1 integrin-null basal cells, identified by a genetic marker, was found in the luminal compartment. These results reveal, for the first time, the essential role of the basal mammary epithelial cell–ECM interactions mediated by β1 integrins in the maintenance of a functional stem cell population, mammary morphogenesis and segregation of the two major mammary cell lineages.

Targeted activation of β-catenin signaling in basal mammary epithelial cells affects mammary development and leads to hyperplasia

Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is involved in the maintenance of the progenitor cell population in the skin, intestine and other tissues, and its aberrant activation caused by stabilization of β-catenin contributes to tumorigenesis. In the mammary gland, constitutive activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in luminal secretory cells results in precocious lobuloalveolar differentiation and induces adenocarcinomas, whereas the impact of this signaling pathway on the function of the second major mammary epithelial cell lineage, the basal myoepithelial cells, has not been analyzed. We have used the keratin (K) 5 promoter to target the expression of stabilized N-terminally truncated β-catenin to the basal cell layer of mouse mammary epithelium. The transgenic mice presented an abnormal mammary phenotype: precocious lateral bud formation, increased proliferation and premature differentiation of luminal epithelium in pregnancy, persistent proliferation in lactation and accelerated involution. Precocious development in pregnancy was accompanied by increased Myc and cyclin D1 transcript levels, and a shift in p63 variant expression towards the ΔNp63 form. The expression of ECM-degrading proteinases and their inhibitors was altered in pregnancy and involution. Nulliparous transgenic females developed mammary hyperplasia that comprised undifferentiated basal (K5/14-positive, K8- and α-smooth muscle-actin-negative) cells. Multiparous mice, in addition, developed invasive basal-type carcinomas. Thus, activation of β-catenin signaling in basal mammary epithelial cells affects the entire process of mammary gland development and induces amplification of basal-type cells that lack lineage markers, presumably, a subpopulation of mammary progenitors able to give rise to tumors.

Mammary stem cells have myoepithelial cell properties

Contractile myoepithelial cells dominate the basal layer of the mammary epithelium and are considered to be differentiated cells. However, we observe that up to 54% of single basal cells can form colonies when seeded into adherent culture in the presence of agents that disrupt actin–myosin interactions, and on average, 65% of the single-cell-derived basal colonies can repopulate a mammary gland when transplanted in vivo. This indicates that a high proportion of basal myoepithelial cells can give rise to a mammary repopulating unit (MRU). We demonstrate that myoepithelial cells, flow-sorted using two independent myoepithelial-specific reporter strategies, have MRU capacity. Using an inducible lineage-tracing approach we follow the progeny of myoepithelial cells that express α-smooth muscle actin and show that they function as long-lived lineage-restricted stem cells in the virgin state and during pregnancy.

Adhesion within the stem cell niches.

Growing body of evidence confirms that cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix adhesion within stem cell niches is essential for the establishment and maintenance of niche architecture, for the generation and transmission of short-distance regulatory signals, and for controlling the frequency and nature of stem cell divisions. Recent studies demonstrated that in many stem cell niches, adhesion to support cells and/or extracellular matrix determines orientation of stem cell division plane, thereby contributing to the control of stem cell self-renewal and differentiation. Thus, although further analysis of the implicated molecular mechanisms is required, cadherin-associated and integrin-associated events appear to play essential regulatory roles in tissue-specific stem cell niches.

EGF controls the in vivo developmental potential of a mammary epithelial cell line possessing progenitor properties

The bilayered mammary epithelium comprises a luminal layer of secretory cells and a basal layer of myoepithelial cells. Numerous data suggest the existence of self-renewing, pluripotent mammary stem cells; however, their molecular characteristics and differentiation pathways are largely unknown. BC44 mammary epithelial cells in culture, display phenotypic characteristics of basal epithelium, i.e., express basal cytokeratins 5 and 14 and P-cadherin, but no smooth muscle markers. In vivo, after injection into the cleared mammary fat pad, these cells gave rise to bilayered, hollow, alveolus-like structures comprising basal cells expressing cytokeratin 5 and luminal cells positive for cytokeratin 8 and secreting β-casein in a polarized manner into the lumen. The persistent stimulation of EGF receptor signaling pathway in BC44 cells in culture resulted in the loss of the in vivo morphogenetic potential and led to the induction of active MMP2, thereby triggering cell scattering and motility on laminin 5. These data (a) suggest that BC44 cells are capable of asymmetric division for self-renewal and the generation of a differentiated progeny restricted to the luminal lineage; (b) clarify the function of EGF in the control of the BC44 cell phenotypic plasticity; and (c) suggest a role for this phenomenon in the mammary gland development.

Slug Controls Stem/Progenitor Cell Growth Dynamics during Mammary Gland Morphogenesis

Background Morphogenesis results from the coordination of distinct cell signaling pathways controlling migration, differentiation, apoptosis, and proliferation, along stem/progenitor cell dynamics. To decipher this puzzle, we focused on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) “master genes”. EMT has emerged as a unifying concept, involving cell-cell adhesion, migration and apoptotic pathways. EMT also appears to mingle with stemness. However, very little is known on the physiological role and relevance of EMT master-genes. We addressed this question during mammary morphogenesis. Recently, a link between Slug/Snai2 and stemness has been described in mammary epithelial cells, but EMT master genes actual localization, role and targets during mammary gland morphogenesis are not known and we focused on this basic question. Methodology/Principal Findings Using a Slug–lacZ transgenic model and immunolocalization, we located Slug in a distinct subpopulation covering about 10–20% basal cap and duct cells, mostly cycling cells, coexpressed with basal markers P-cadherin, CK5 and CD49f. During puberty, Slug-deficient mammary epithelium exhibited a delayed development after transplantation, contained less cycling cells, and overexpressed CK8/18, ER, GATA3 and BMI1 genes, linked to luminal lineage. Other EMT master genes were overexpressed, suggesting compensation mechanisms. Gain/loss-of-function in vitro experiments confirmed Slug control of mammary epithelial cell luminal differentiation and proliferation. In addition, they showed that Slug enhances specifically clonal mammosphere emergence and growth, cell motility, and represses apoptosis. Strikingly, Slug-deprived mammary epithelial cells lost their potential to generate secondary clonal mammospheres. Conclusions/Significance We conclude that Slug pathway controls the growth dynamics of a subpopulation of cycling progenitor basal cells during mammary morphogenesis. Overall, our data better define a key mechanism coordinating cell lineage dynamics and morphogenesis, and provide physiological relevance to broadening EMT pathways.

The mammary myoepithelial cell.

Over the last few years, the discovery of basal-type mammary carcinomas and the association of the regenerative potential of the mammary epithelium with the basal myoepithelial cell population have attracted considerable attention to this second major mammary lineage. However, many questions concerning the role of basal myoepithelial cells in mammary morphogenesis, functional differentiation and disease remain unanswered. Here, we discuss the mechanisms that control the myoepithelial cell differentiation essential for their contractile function, summarize new data concerning the roles played by cell-extracellular matrix (ECM), intercellular and paracrine interactions in the regulation of various aspects of the mammary basal myoepithelial cell functional activity. Finally, we analyze the contribution of the basal myoepithelial cells to the regenerative potential of the mammary epithelium and tumorigenesis.

Myc is required for β-catenin-mediated mammary stem cell amplification and tumorigenesis

BackgroundBasal-like breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease characterized by the expression of basal cell markers, no estrogen or progesterone receptor expression and a lack of HER2 ov erexpression. Recent studies have linked activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and its downstream target, Myc, to basal-like breast cancer. Transgenic mice K5ΔNβcat previously generated by our team present a constitutive activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the basal myoepithelial cell layer, resulting in focal mammary hyperplasias that progress to invasive carcinomas. Mammary lesions developed by K5ΔNβcat mice consist essentially of basal epithelial cells that, in contrast to mammary myoepithelium, do not express smooth muscle markers.MethodsMicroarray analysis was used to compare K5ΔNβcat mouse tumors to human breast tumors, mammary cancer cell lines and the tumors developed in other mouse models. Cre-Lox approach was employed to delete Myc from the mammary basal cell layer of K5ΔNβcat mice. Stem cell amplification in K5ΔNβcat mouse mammary epithelium was assessed with 3D-culture and transplantation assays.ResultsHistological and microarray analyses of the mammary lesions of K5ΔNβcat females revealed their high similarity to a subset of basal-like human breast tumors with squamous differentiation. As in human basal-like carcinomas, the Myc pathway appeared to be activated in the mammary lesions of K5ΔNβcat mice. We found that a basal cell population with stem/progenitor characteristics was amplified in K5ΔNβcat mouse preneoplastic glands. Finally, the deletion of Myc from the mammary basal layer of K5ΔNβcat mice not only abolished the regenerative capacity of basal epithelial cells, but, in addition, completely prevented the tumorigenesis.ConclusionsThese results strongly indicate that β-catenin-induced stem cell amplification and tumorigenesis rely ultimately on the Myc pathway activation and reinforce the hypothesis that basal stem/progenitor cells may be at the origin of a subset of basal-like breast tumors.

SHARPIN regulates collagen architecture and ductal outgrowth in the developing mouse mammary gland

SHARPIN is a widely expressed multifunctional protein implicated in cancer, inflammation, linear ubiquitination and integrin activity inhibition; however, its contribution to epithelial homeostasis remains poorly understood. Here, we examined the role of SHARPIN in mammary gland development, a process strongly regulated by epithelial–stromal interactions. Mice lacking SHARPIN expression in all cells (Sharpincpdm), and mice with a stromal (S100a4‐Cre) deletion of Sharpin, have reduced mammary ductal outgrowth during puberty. In contrast, Sharpincpdm mammary epithelial cells transplanted in vivo into wild‐type stroma, fully repopulate the mammary gland fat pad, undergo unperturbed ductal outgrowth and terminal differentiation. Thus, SHARPIN is required in mammary gland stroma during development. Accordingly, stroma adjacent to invading mammary ducts of Sharpincpdm mice displayed reduced collagen arrangement and extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness. Moreover, Sharpincpdm mammary gland stromal fibroblasts demonstrated defects in collagen fibre assembly, collagen contraction and degradation in vitro. Together, these data imply that SHARPIN regulates the normal invasive mammary gland branching morphogenesis in an epithelial cell extrinsic manner by controlling the organisation of the stromal ECM.

Aspects of haemopoietic cell dynamics: Ontogeny and targeted migration

In the developing avian and mammalian embryo, haemopoietic cells appear first in transient foci whose function is restricted to discrete periods of embryogenesis. These foci are essentially represented by the yolk sac, intraembryonic dispersed foci and the liver. Haemopoietic cells then repopulate the developing spleen, thymus and bone marrow, organs which persist and develop after birth. In the present review, we describe a number of possible mechanisms controlling specific adhesion, oriented migration and invasiveness of haemopoietic cells. One concerns the high specificity of the interactions of homing receptors on the surface of haemopoietic cells with determinants on vascular endothelium and/or thymic epithelium. A second is the importance of the presence of some macromolecules in the extracellular matrix, such as fibronectin, collagen, laminin and elastin. These components can interact with the haemopoietic cells (and/or induce chemotaxis) via the existence of specific receptors on the surface of the haemopoietic cells. Another mechanism is the activation of the haemopoietic cells through the interactions of cell-chemotactic factor, cell-extracellular matrix and/or cell-thymic epithelium. This activation can lead to: 1) the expression of new specific cell-surface receptors for the target foci; 2) the secretion of specific protease and glycosidase systems active upon the extracellular matrix; and 3) the differentiation of these cells in the thymus.