Marie Macey

Race, gender and sexuality: The oppression of multiculturalism

In this article we analyse the impact of multicultural ideology on struggles for equality in the spheres of gender, race/ethnicity and sexuality. We argue that multiculturalism has permeated theory, policy and action in these areas and that this has resulted in divisions and conflicts between movements for human rights. This has allowed an uncritical brand of multiculturalism to flourish which operates to further oppress already disadvantaged groups. We illustrate our thesis in relation to the violence committed against Black/Asian women through such cultural practices as forced arranged marriage, domestic violence and female genital mutilation. We also note the violence against gay and lesbian people which is sanctioned by some cultural and religious traditions. We conclude that failure to address fundamental questions about possible limits to cultural diversity in liberal democratic societies has implications for the continued oppression of the least powerful and the future of human rights.

The maastricht treaty: Exacerbating racism in Europe?

Abstract Ethnic discrimination is widespread in the European Community [EC] and is particularly practised against visible minorities. It operates at national borders and with member states and ranges from racist immigration legislation, through institutionalized discrimination, to physical assaults and murders. The completion of the single internal market in January 1993 stressed financial and trade factors at the expense of human rights. This encouraged the development of policies that impact adversely on people of ethnic minority status, particularly those who are black, whether EC citizens or third‐country nationals. The Maastricht Treaty of December 1991 on economic and monetary union [EMU] establishes deflation as a continent‐wide project. This will result in diminished growth and high unemployment, as well as in significant cuts in social welfare provision. Under the terms of the Maastricht Treaty, individual member states are probibited from implementing policies that could counter the adverse effe...

The Trouble with Multiculturalism

We focus specifically on multiculturalism in this book because for some years now, it has been the dominant approach to cultural and religious diversity around the world (Kymlicka, 1998; 2001a,b; 2007). It is thus important to clarify what the term means, why it was introduced into Western societies and how it operates in policy and practice. Since our concern is with equality and human rights, our focus is mainly at the policy and practice levels and the question of whether multiculturalism has promoted or obstructed these in relation to minority ethnic groups (for a theoretical critique, see Macey, 2009).

Minorities, Racism and Citizenship: The impact of the single European market

Abstract This paper explores the impact of the completion of the Single European Market on members of ethnic minority groups with particular reference to Britain. The development of increasingly consensual, restrictive policies towards immigrants, refugees and asylum seekers by E.C. countries is analysed within the framework of dominant racist ideologies. Since racism does not differentiate between people who are ‘visibly different’, policies and practices aimed at non‐E.C. nationals will affect all black people, including those who are citizens of E.C. countries. It is argued that the erosion or denial of citizen rights to selected categories of people has far‐reaching implications, not only for members of minority groups but for human rights and democratic processes. An earlier version of this paper ‘At the Cutting Edge of Citizenship: Race and Ethnicity in Europe 1992’ was presented at the Annual Conference of the Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations: NEW ISSUES IN BLACK POLITICS, University of Warw...

The Problem with Religion

This chapter focuses specifically on religion(s) within the complex of ‘race, ethnicity, culture and religion’. It describes the sociological character of religion and locates this in the context of globalisation, migration and multicultural/multi-faith societies and a growing emphasis on religion on the part of both governments and academics. This stems not only from diversity, but also from the assertion of a global resurgence of religion which is paralleled by a theoretical/ideological shift that challenges secularisation and, indeed, Enlightenment thinking and claims a place for religion in the public arena. Yet in the context of ethnic diversity, religion may create or exacerbate social tensions and is itself responsible for inequality and oppression on a number of dimensions which we explore in this chapter.

Landscapes of Religion or Belief

The premise of this book is that religion is an important topic because what goes by the name ‘religion’ is important in the lives of many people, and that religious understandings exist in their own right. They cannot be treated as derived manifestations — the ideological reflexes — of cultural or social phenomena defined at other levels.

Towards Equality of Religion or Belief

The landscape of religion is changing in Britain in ways that are reasonably clear, even if the details of the process often cry out for further investigation. There has been a continuing movement of secularisation, with declining observance in organised (mainly Christian) religions, and an accompanying shift ‘from forms of religion that are imposed or inherited to forms of religion that are primarily chosen’ (Davie, 2005: 281). Davie regards this shift ‘from obligation to consumption’ as characteristic of Northern Europe as a whole, and not just the UK. These processes have left a situation in which those who practise religion actively make up a small minority of the population — no more than 20% in Britain, even on the most generous assumptions about what counts as practice of the Christian religion. The majority of the population occupy a variety of different positions within an alternative spectrum of spiritual, agnostic and secular belief that has very little connection with any organised religion, at the levels of either (accepted) religious practice or (conventional) religious belief. Although Stark and Finke have claimed that ‘it seems time to carry the secularization doctrine to the graveyard of failed theories’, their obituary notice is premature, since secularisation is alive and well in nearly all developed countries (2000: 79, cited in Norris and Inglehart, 2007: 32).

Social Injustices of Religion or Belief

The distinction between social inequality and social injustice was introduced in the previous chapter. It was argued that religious inequalities can be addressed by a range of measures involving education, social class equality and/or gender equality that do not refer to religious identity. Religious inequality is not therefore caused solely by injustices suffered by individuals as a consequence of their religious identity. As a key government report made the point: ‘not all inequality stems from discrimination, and therefore not all inequality can be addressed by legal remedy’ (Phillips, 2007: 37). In this chapter we will, however, focus on the issue of religious injustice, and the related role of the law concerning religion/belief.

Religion and Culture Make a Difference

In this book, ‘religious inequality’ (or ‘inequality of religion or belief’) is used as a descriptive term to denote any variation in circumstances between members of groups defined by religion or belief. We focus especially on inequalities that exert major effects on the life chances of individuals. An unequal situation does not necessarily imply unequal or unfair treatment, since the latter judgement will depend on what has brought about the unequal situation. Religious inequalities may, nevertheless, point up areas of potential concern regarding injustices of religion or belief such as prejudice, hate crime or discrimination, which are covered in more detail in the next chapter. We argue in this chapter that it is necessary to achieve a balanced view of the extent and causes of religious inequality in order to provide the foundation for appropriate policy initiatives.

Multiculturalism in Practice: Forced Marriage

There are many examples of what can be termed ‘multiculturalism in practice’ that could be used to illustrate the actual impact of multicultural policies on people in the real world. Some of these are direct, such as the ban on trans-racial adoption which has resulted in thousands of ‘mixed-race’ (or ‘dual-heritage’) children in Britain and the US being condemned to a lifetime of institutional care (Simon, 1974; Simon and Alstein, 1987; Bartholet, 1991; 1993; 1994; Alstein and Melli, 1993; Aldridge, 1994; Gaber, 1994; Macey, 1995c; 1996; 1998). Some are indirect and involve the import through migration and settlement of practices that originate in different cultural contexts. These include sex-selective abortions, forced marriage, female genital mutilation and so-called ‘honour’-related violence, including murder. I use the term ‘indirect’ in these cases to indicate the fact that none of them is sanctioned by the state or, formally at least, by the cultural communities in which they are practised. On the contrary, FGM is illegal, as, of course, is murder — whether labelled ‘honour’ or otherwise. And that forced marriages are known to be wrong is, to some extent, indicated by the widespread denial of it by minority ethnic individuals (Samad and Eade, 2002; Phillips and Dustin, 2004; HAC, 2008; Khanum, 2008), though the belief that force only occurs when violence is involved needs to be noted here.